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Horticultural Reviews, Volume 43
Jules Janick, Jules Janick
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eBook - ePub
Horticultural Reviews, Volume 43
Jules Janick, Jules Janick
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Horticultural Reviews presents state-of-the-art reviews on topics in horticultural science and technology covering both basic and applied research. Topics covered include the horticulture of fruits, vegetables, nut crops, and ornamentals. These review articles, written by world authorities, bridge the gap between the specialized researcher and the broader community of horticultural scientists and teachers.
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1
Light-Emitting Diodes in Horticulture
Cary A. Mitchell, Michael P. Dzakovich, Celina Gomez, and Roberto Lopez
Department of Horticulture & Landscape Architecture Purdue University West Lafayette, IN USA
John F. Burr
Krannert School of Business Management Purdue University West Lafayette, IN USA
Richardo Hernández and Chieri Kubota
School of Plant Sciences The University of Arizona Tucson, AZ USA
Christopher J. Currey
Department of Horticulture Iowa State University Ames, IA USA
Qingwu Meng and Erik S. Runkle
Department of Horticulture Michigan State University East Lansing, MI USA
Christopher M. Bourget and Robert C. Morrow
Orbital Technologies Corporation Madison, WI USA
Arend J. Both
Department of Environmental Sciences Rutgers University New Brunswick, NJ USA
Abstract
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) have great potential to revolutionize lighting technology for the commercial horticulture industry. Unique LED properties of selectable, narrow-spectrum emissions, long life spans, cool photon-emitting surfaces, and rapidly improving energy use efficiency encourage novel lighting architectures and applications with promising profitability potential. In greenhouses, such unique properties can be leveraged for precise control of flowering and product quality for the floriculture industry, for energy-efficient propagation of ornamental and vegetable transplants, and for supplemental lighting of high-wire greenhouse vegetable crops for all-year production. In a sole-source lighting mode, LEDs can also be used for transplant production, as well as for production of rapid-turning vegetable and small fruit crops. Evidence is accumulating that nutritional and health attributes of horticultural products may be enhanced by specific wavelength combinations of narrow-spectrum light from LEDs. During periods of seasonally limited solar light, LEDs have potential to enhance daily light integral in greenhouses by providing supplemental photosynthetic radiation, particularly of red and blue light. The cool photon-emitting surfaces of LEDs permit their novel placement relative to crop foliar canopies, including close-canopy overhead lighting as well as within-canopy lighting, which greatly reduces electrical energy requirements while maintaining adequate incident photon fluxes. Because of the small size of individual LEDs and narrow beam angles from LED arrays, light distribution can be highly targeted and waste of light from LEDs minimized compared with other light sources traditionally used for horticulture. Prescriptions of spectral blends (e.g., red:far-red and red:blue ratios) can be developed for LEDs to accomplish specific photomorphogenic goals for seedling development, flowering, and possibly yield and produce quality. LED light quality may also be useful to control pest insects and to avoid physiological disorders otherwise caused by low-intensity or narrow-spectrum lighting. Complex factors such as rapidly improving LED luminous efficacy, favorable mass-manufacturing costs, local costs of electrical energy, and capital investment will interact to determine for which applications and when LEDs become the dominant lighting technology in horticulture.
KEYWORDS: energy savings; greenhouse; intracanopy; light quality; night interruption; photomorphogenesis; photoperiod; propagation; sole-source lighting; solid-state lighting; supplemental lighting
- Abbreviations
- I. Introduction
- II. Properties of LEDs
- A. What Are LEDs?
- B. LEDs as a Horticultural Lighting System
- C. LED Packaging
- D. Wavebands of Interest
- E. Performance Trends and Outlook
- F. Misconceptions About LED Lighting
- III. Design Considerations
- A. General Design Requirements
- B. Thermal Management
- C. Control
- 1. Warm-Up and Restrike Times
- 2. “Smart” Control Systems
- D. LED Lighting Systems
- 1. Intracanopy Lighting
- 2. Overhead Point Source
- 3. Overhead Distributed Source
- E. Strategies for Maximizing Life and Maintaining Output
- IV. Historical Overview of LED Use in Horticulture
- V. Summary of Plant Experiments in Space with LEDs
- VI. Horticultural Applications of LEDs
- A. Providing Photosynthetic Light for Young Ornamental Plants
- 1. Introduction
- 2. Supplemental Lighting
- 3. Sole-Source Lighting
- B. Photoperiodic Lighting with LEDs
- 1. Historical Background
- 2. Red and Far-Red Light
- 3. Blue Light
- 4. Green Light
- 5. Growth Response Parameters
- 6. Comparison of LEDs with Traditional Light Sources
- C. Propagation of Vegetable Transplants Under LED Lighting
- 1. Introduction and Brief History
- 2. Improving Transplant Morphology with LED Lighting
- 3. Improving Transplant Photosynthesis and Growth
- 4. Considerations in Evaluating Electric Lighting for Greenhouses
- 5. LEDs for Sole-Source Lighting of Vegetable Transplants
- D. LED Applications for Indoor Crop Production
- 1. Full-Coverage Sole-Source Lighting
- 2. Targeted Close-Canopy Lighting
- E. LED Applications for Greenhouse Vegetable Crop Production
- 1. Current Standard
- 2. Sole-Source Lighting Pretreatments
- 3. Supplemental Lighting
- 4. Current Status and Challenges
- F. The Potential of LEDs to Enhance Produce Quality
- 1. Strawberry
- 2. Salad and Microgreens
- 3. Tomato
- 4. Postharvest
- 5. Summary
- A. Providing Photosynthetic Light for Young Ornamental Plants
- VII. LED Lighting and Plant Health
- A. Physiological Disorders
- B. Insect Pests
- VIII. LEDs and Light Pollution
- A. Control of Spectral Output
- B. High Light Intensity
- C. High-Resolution Control
- IX. LED Light Distribution Issues
- X. LED Environmental and Health Issues
- A. Disposal
- B. Optical Safety for LEDs
- XI. Adoption of LED Technology by Horticultural Industries
- A. Economics
- B. Evolution of Design and Industry
- XII. The Future of Plant Applications for LEDs
- A. Improvements in Technology
- B. Improved Use of Light to Achieve Specific Horticultural Goals
- Literature Cited
Abbreviations
ABRS | Advanced Biological Research System |
AC | Alternating current |
ASHS | American Society for Horticultural Science |
B | Blue |
BF | Blue fluorescent |
CEWG | Controlled Environments Working Group |
DC | Direct current |
DE | Day extension |
DIF | Day temperature − night temperature |
DLC | Dynamic lighting control |
DLI | Daily light integral |
DOE | Department of Energy |
DPPH | 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl |
EOD | End of day |
ESD | Electrostatic discharge |
FL | Fluorescent |
FR | Far-red |
G | Green |
HID | High-intensity discharge |
HPS | High-pressure sodium |
HR | Hyper-red |
IC | Integrated circuit |
ICL | Intracanopy lighting |
INC | Incandescent |
ISS | International Space Station |
kWh | Kilowatt hour |
LD | Long day |
LDP | Long-day plant |
LED | Light-emitting diode |
lm | Lumen |
MH | Metal halide |
NASA | National Aeronautics and Space Administration |
NBL | Narrowband lighting |
NCERA-101 | North-Central Extension and Research Activity-101 |
NI | Night interruption |
OH | Overhead |
PAR | Photosynthetically active radiation |
PBB | Polybrominated biphenyl |
PBDE | Polybrominated diphenyl ether |
PFR | Far-red-absorbing form of phytochrome |
PPF | Photosynthetic photon flux |
PR | Red-absorbing form of phytochrome |
PS | Photosynthesis |
PWM | Pulse-width modulation |
QI | Quality index |
R | Red |
RDM | Root dry mass |
RWB | Red + white + blue |
SD | Short day |
SDP | Short-day plant |
SL | Supplemental lighting |
SPAD | Relative chlorophyll content |
SSBRP | Space Station Biological Research Program |
UV | Ultraviolet |
VOC | Volatile organic compound |
W | Watt |
WF | White fluorescent |
I. Introduction
Horticultural lighting long has borrowed technology from the lighting industry that was not originally designed or intended for plant growth and development. As a consequence, horticulturists and plant physiologists learned to “make do” with the range of lamps that were available for supplemental or sole-source lighting of horticultural crops. Incandescent lamps became the standard for photoperiod control in greenhouses (Downs et al. 1958). Fluorescent (FL) ± incandescent (INC) lamps were widely used to achieve “normal” plant growth and development in growth chambers (Biran and Kofranek 1976; Bickford 1979), and when high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps came along, they quickly became the standard for supplemental lighting (SL) in greenhouses and for sole-source lighting in phytotrons and some growth chambers (Warrington et al. 1978; Tibbitts et al. 1983). All of these light sources do the job, but also have serious limitations. At the time they were adopted, there were no good alternatives. Incandescent lamps are highly wasteful of energy, are very short-lived (Bickford and Dunn 1972), and are rapidly disappearing from the marketplace. Fluorescent lamps have limited photon output and a short effective life span (Sager and McFarlane 1997). High-intensity discharge lamps require high voltage, emit intense radiant heat (McCree 1984), and require wide spatial separation from plants and/or thermal barriers. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) were first tested with plants more than 20 years ago (Bula et al....