Here, Winckelmann proposes that, while accurate imitation was a strength of classicist art, the ancients had a particular way of observing and depicting the nature of objects and bodies in the world, one that imbued them with reverent beauty. The result was art that exhibited a sense of idealism: a smooth and symmetrical perfection that should be the aspiration of all artists.
These are some of the main factors that precipitated neoclassicism. As a result of these massive societal shifts, late Renaissance and Enlightenment art moved from an expressive, maximalist display of moral abandon, to an ancient sense of aesthetic discipline and perfect form.
An example of neoclassicism
One artwork that is considered emblematic of the neoclassical movement is Anton Raphael Mengs’ (1728–1779) Parnassus (1761). Originally, Mengs painted in the rococo style, but Parnassus marks a departure, ushering in neoclassicism as the new dominant aesthetic. Mengs was highly influenced by Winckelmann, who was a friend and a subject of his portraits. Mengs and Winckelmann were both deeply affected by the aesthetic of ancient classicism that revealed itself in the excavation of Herculaneum and Pompeii, and Winckelmann’s insistence on the superiority of classical tastes was detectable in Mengs’ style. In turn, Stanley Appelbaum notes that Mengs “guided Winckelmann through the effervescent Roman art scene, and they collaborated on essays about Greek art” (Winckelmann’s Images from the Ancient World, 2013).
Largely based on Raphael's frescoes in the Vatican — important pieces of work to come out of the Renaissance — Parnassus features Apollo, the sun god, surrounded by various Muses, their virtues indicated by the objects they hold. These figures stand in a dusty clearing, where a spring flows from beneath Apollo’s feet, set against a lush landscape behind them. Apollo stands in the center, slightly elevated, while the Muses are arranged more or less in symmetry, either side of him. There is not a lot of movement in the composition; these figures are well spaced, poised, and static, evoking a sculptural tableau. This composition shows the restraint, balance, and simplicity of classicism rather than the busy, impassioned paintings of baroque and rococo. This contemporary rendering of the classical style was pioneering for the time, and initiated neoclassicism — first in Italy and then farther afield.
This aesthetic shift was partially made to advance the moral purpose of art. Rather than being a monarchic tool for religious propaganda, or a celebration of aristocratic hedonism and the lavish life of the upper classes, neoclassicism hoped to retrieve the refined moral codes of ancient Greece and Rome. The priority of austerity, rationality, heroism, and democracy became a way to overthrow the lifestyle and values of the monarchy and the aristocracy. Parnassus exemplifies this effort. The intellectual and artistic virtues of science, philosophy, and music — activities exhibited by Apollo and the Muses — are clearly held in high regard, and the geometric symmetry of the figures and their composition embodies what Winckelmann describes as “a noble simplicity and sedate grandeur in Gesture and Expression” alive in classical works (1765 [2020]).
Criticism of neoclassicism
As with any popular cultural movement, neoclassicism had its adversaries. One came in the form of Romanticism. Where neoclassicism responded to the style of the baroque and rococo, Romanticism, in turn, was a response to, and a push against, neoclassicist art. Romanticism opposed many of the ideas of the Enlightenment, including the contributions of neoclassicism. Neoclassicism celebrated the reverence of humanity and the triumph of civilization over nature. Romanticism, on the other hand, saw humans as an essential component of the natural world. So, where neoclassicism idealized the human form, rendering human bodies with restraint and balance, Romanticism reveled in the unruly chaos of nature and saw an essential unity between humanity and the natural world. Where neoclassicism advocated discipline and control in its art, Romanticism advocated for artistic freedom. Rather than the smooth aesthetic of classicism, Romantic art featured exaggerated perspectives and bold brush strokes, creating a sense of spontaneity and expression.
In Classicism, Dominique Secretan describes a way of looking at the overarching position of classicism and Romanticism, and the differences between the two: through two different approaches to the “human condition” (2017). Secretan writes: