Human Rights, Education & Global Responsibilities

James Lynch, Celia Modgil, Sohan Modgil

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2014
• ISBN:
  9781317938934
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Education General

First published in 1992. This is Volume 4 of a series of four on Cultural Diversity and the Schools and focusses on Human Rights, Education and Global Responsibilities. One of the major problems facing societies in almost all parts of the world is the inadequate accommodation of social equity with cultural diversity. The crisis emanating from neglect of this issue can be seen in societies as different and wide apart as the Soviet Union, India, Pakistan, the United States and the United Kingdom. This series seeks to contribute, through joint publication and the stimulation of greater discourse, to identify the pathways to a less selfish and parochial response to the continuing dilemma of equity and diversity, not solely within the nation state, but also internationally.

Part One:
Alternative Rationales and Conceptualizations

1.
Human Rights Education: Alternative Conceptions

NORMA TARROW

Cognizant of alternate conceptions of human rights and human rights education, this chapter attempts to: provide a working definition of human rights education and its components; offer an overview of various rationales for its inclusion in the curriculum; discuss alternative types and levels of programmes; relate human rights education to other current social education movements; and point out problems in implementing human rights education programmes in the schools.

Human rights are often in the news — more in regard to their violation than their observance. In addition to the issues raised by changes in the former USSR, by terrorists in Lebanon, Ireland and Spain, by political upheaval in Latin America and the Middle East, famine in Africa, refugees and migrants all over the world, the fortieth anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1988), the thirtieth anniversary of the Declaration of the Rights of the Child (1989) and the birth of the International Convention on the Rights of the Child (1990) have produced a burgeoning interest in the international protection of human rights. Recognition that an educated public is the greatest guarantee of human rights and, in effect, serves as its ultimate sanction (Humphrey, 1987; Ray and Tarrow, 1987) has fostered interest and efforts in the field of human rights education, on the part of international, national as well as state, provincial and county officials.

Human Rights Education — and Human Rights

Human rights education has been defined as the conscious effort, both through specific content as well as process, to develop in students an awareness of their rights (and responsibilities), to sensitize them to the rights of others, and to encourage responsible action to secure the rights of all. (Tarrow, 1988, p. 1)

This deceptively simple definition opens a Pandora’s Box of alternative conceptualizations. First, and foremost, one must determine what constitutes human rights. One expert has offered the following definition: human rights are ‘those entitlements which are basic to being human and are not connected to the accident of being born in a certain country or with skin of a particular color’ (Torney-Purta, 1988, p. 16). She points out that there is a basic core of universally agreed-upon human rights as well as a collection of documents in which they are expressed. Basic rights deal with the dignity and worth of the person; civil and political rights with the right to participate in self-government; and social, economic and cultural rights with such matters as the right to work, to maintain one’s culture and language, and to receive an adequate education. The right to education is pivotal, since it is essential in socializing the younger generation into understanding their rights, relationships to others, and responsibilities in terms of safeguarding human rights.

Different societies, however, define rights in terms of their own historical experience, their value systems, and the political and economic realities of the current era. The history of human rights has continuously been ruffled not only by the differing perspectives of Eastern and Western nations, as well as developing and industrialized societies, but also by the different emphasis on ‘individual’ as opposed to ‘group’ rights inherent in these different societies (Ray and Tarrow, 1987).¹ In the succinct words of one author, ‘The common denominator of human rights is that every government claims to honor human rights, while postulating that political systems different from their own do not’ (Obermeier, 1986, p. 113). Thus it is equally obvious that the form and content of human rights education will depend on the values into which a particular society wishes to socialize its children.

As for the documents referred to by Torney-Purta, there are those who challenge some of the critical international agreements on human rights on the basis that they reflect a particular (Western) cultural perspective. In response, others challenge these viewpoints as a type of sceptical relativism that can be used to justify violations and advocate wholesale rejection of the human rights movement (Coomaraswamy, 1982). The author subscribes to the view of renowned legal and human rights expert, John Humphrey, that the Universal Declaration of Human Rights meets the criteria for being considered part of the customary law of nations, and that, as such, it is binding on all states, regardless of whether or not they had a voice in its adoption (Humphrey, 1984). The perspective of this chapter derives from the author’s experiences in working with human rights educators in the US, Canada, Spain and the Council of Europe — the last of which has taken the lead in defining the field, disseminating materials and developing a cadre of committed professionals implementing programmes in their own countries.

The definition offered at the beginning of this section also referred to content and process. These may also be open to varied conceptualizations. Within the school setting, in its broadest sense, ‘content’ refers to everything children learn about a subject. ‘Process’ refers to the means and methods (both direct and indirect) by which this learning is accomplished. The United States National Council for the Social Studies curriculum guidelines offer a simple, yet complete, categorization of the content of the social studies curriculum, which appears to have wide applicability and acceptability. The four elements included are: knowledge, (elsewhere used synonymously with ‘content’ in a more narrow interpretation), skill, values and social participation (NCSS, 1979).

According to the Deputy Director of Education, Culture and Sport of the Council of Europe, the common core of knowledge of human rights education should include:²

‘The main categories of human rights, duties, obligations and responsibilities’ (the idea of rights should be matched with that of responsibilities to others, to the community and to humanity as a whole);

‘The main international declarations and conventions on human rights’, e.g., the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Declaration of the Rights of the Child, Convention, the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man, the Universal Islamic Declaration of Human Rights and the Banjul (Africa) Charter of Human and Peoples’ Rights;

‘People, movements and key events in the historical and continuing struggle for human rights’ (e.g., Gandhi, King, Mandela; civil rights movements, women’s movements);

‘The various forms of injustice, inequality and discrimination’ (e.g., racism, sexism, terrorism and genocide) (Stobart, 1987, p. x).

The skills developed by human rights education are similar to those of any good social studies programme and include:

communication (written and oral expression, discussion and listening) and using the tools of the discipline (e.g., reading and interpreting maps, charts, graphs, reference material, etc.);

critical thinking (collecting and analyzing material from multiple sources, identifying different perspectives, distinguishing between fact and opinion, detecting prejudice and bias, reaching logical, fair and balanced conclusions);

social skills (cooperation, conflict resolution, forming positive relationships).

The fortieth Council of Europe Teachers’ Seminar, pointing out that knowledge goals are inappropriate for younger children, identified certain values that are appropriate at every level but that form the major focus of human rights education in early childhood. These include:

development of positive self-image;

increased awareness of one’s own environment;

openness towards others;

acceptance of (and respect for) differences;

recognition of fundamental similarities (Abdallah-Pretceille, 1989).

Lastly, the element of social participation brings us back to the NCSS guidelines:

Knowledge without action is impotent. Whatever students of the social studies learn should impel them to apply their knowledge, abilities, and commitments toward the improvement of the human condition. A commitment to democratic participation suggests that the school abandon futile efforts to insulate pupils from social reality, and instead, find ways to involve them as active citizens. (NCSS, 1979, p. 3)

We have now dealt with human rights education in terms of content in primary and secondary schools. Starkey (1984) views this as one aspect of a tripartite structure, pointing out that human rights education also pervades both extracurricular activities, as well as what he refers to as the ‘hidden curriculum’ — the ethos and organization of the school. This brings us to the matter of process. The messages about human rights that children receive from the way teachers and administrators communicate and interact with them, with each other, with staff and with parents; the extent to which students are allowed to participate in decisions affecting them; the emphasis on individualization and cooperation rather than competition; the ethnic make-up of the school; the provision of relevant, integrated, interdisciplinary learning activities calling for problemsolving and active involvement — all these processes are at least as significant as the content of the curriculum. A human rights curriculum requires an environment based on human rights principles.

Such an educational environment respects human dignity, similarities and differences, and group, national and universal values. Such teaching-learning strategies stress self-discipline, active and cooperative learning, as well as critical thinking and conflict resolution. Torney-Purta (1982) points out that there is considerable research support for the value of an open classroom climate and student participation, and cooperative learning; that ‘proclaiming’ human rights in authoritarian classrooms conveys a contradictory (and hypocritical) message. The Council of Europe’s Learning for Life programme recommends that schools have a council with elected representatives, even in primary schools, to make recommendations on matters affecting pupils. It calls for clear policies on racism and sexism; participation of teachers, parents and school employees in school affairs; and suggests that pupils should be able to meet in their spare time and express themselves orally, through the arts and sports, and in school newspapers (Learning for Life, 1984).

Human rights education in primary grades is well suited to the current emphases … on development of positive self concept, democratic values (working in groups, sharing, taking turns, respecting the rights of others, cooperating in solving problems), basic civic values (fair play, good sportsmanship, respect for the opinions of others) and cultural diversity. Human rights education in middle and upper grades capitalizes on current interest in educational strategies for interactive learning including group processes, cooperative learning, conflict resolution, and techniques such as role playing, simulation, etc. … [while] middle and upper grade content expands upon themes in current curriculum guides, including civil rights, international agreements, stereotyping, and examples of human rights violations in the past and present. (Tarrow, 1988, p. 8)

With this clarification of terminology, perhaps the original ‘simple’ definition of human rights education as ‘the conscious effort, both through specific content as well as process, to develop in students an awareness of their rights (and responsibilities), to sensitize them to the rights of others, and to encourage responsible action to secure the rights of all’ (Tarrow, 1988, p. 1) can be universally acceptable.

Why Human Rights Education?

… That every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms … (Preamble, Universal Declaration of Human Rights)

Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace. (Article 26(2), Universal Declaration of Human Rights)

Based on recognition of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as part of the customary law of nations, these two universally accepted statements should serve as the rationale for thé teaching of human rights in all countries. However, in response to the mandate of Article 26, and as authorized by its own Constitution, the eighteenth session of UNESCO adopted an important policy statement in 1974 — revolutionary in accommodating to the multiple perspectives and conceptualizations of its representatives and member states. The 1974 UNESCO Recommendation Concerning Education for International Cooperation and Peace and Education Relating to Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms ‘not only affirms the link that exists between international education and human rights education; it also calls on governments, education officials and teachers to recognize this interrelationship and to translate it into action through appropriate educational policies, practices and programs’ (Buergenthal and Torney, 1976, p. 2).³

Intended as a major guideline of educational policy, its enumeration of objectives is provided in paragraph 4 and consequent implications for curriculum planning in paragraphs 5 and 18 (see Appendix 1). The credibility of this document as the major rationale for human rights education in all countries is supported by the fact that:

Member States are required by the UNESCO Constitution to bring the recommendation to the attention of those national agencies in their country that are empowered to regulate and act upon the subjects dealt with in the recommendation. The UNESCO Constitution also requires the Member States to file periodic reports with the Organization detailing what action, if any, they have taken to give effect to the recommendation. (Buergenthal and Torney, 1976, p. 4)

It is significant to note that the definition of ‘education’ (provided in paragraph 1 (a) is extremely broad and that formal schooling is not the only type of education included. The document continuously stresses the relationship between human rights education and global education (para. 4), civic and moral education (paras 10-16), peace education (para. 6) and intercultural education — through the study of domestic ethnic (as well as foreign) cultures (paras 4b, 17, 21, 22 and 33). From the standpoint of process, an innovative, active and interdisciplinary approach is stressed (para. 20). The document makes a strong case for beginning human rights education in preschool and continuing through secondary and adu...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Half Title page
• Series Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contributors
• Contents
• Editors' Introduction
• Part One Alternative Rationales and Conceptualizations
• Part Two Teaching Human Rights: Approaches and Strategies
• Part Three Human Rights Teaching in a Global Context
• Part Four Linking Multicultural Education and Global Issues
• Epilogue
• Author Index
• Subject Index