Change
Introduction
Art is about change. Culture is about change. As Heinze said in an editorial in an Arts Management Newsletter (2013), arts organisations should have the capacity to change â in response to challenges from the environment and because of audience and stakeholder expectations. They should also be organisations where people are encouraged to challenge the ways things are done in order to more effectively use limited resources.
Most of the discussion around change in organisations is about how hard it is. But as itâs inevitable, understanding the resistance to change is as important as creating a resilient organisation that can deal with change. Jim Phills (2005, 162) ran a number of arts leadership programs at Stanford University, and after discussions with the participants, concluded that âthe notion of leadership as managing change in order to ensure the continued vibrancy and effectiveness of the organization was a recurring oneâ. The equally telling point that he made was regardless of that belief, most of the arts leaders loved the idea of stability.
Thereâs the change we seek, the unplanned change that is forced upon us, and the emergent change that just happens. Organisations change their current activities, they replace them with new ones and they undertake transformational changes, usually with new leadership or in times of crisis. We need to be ready for change. If you donât want to change anything then youâre probably wrong. If you want to change everything, youâre probably wrong. Even if you only want to make small changes, there will be resisters.
Resistance
In her PhD about the role of theatre practice in facilitating organisation innovation, PĂ€ssilĂ€ (2012) elegantly captures what she calls the âmessy every day politics of organisational lifeâ that get in the way of change and innovation:
The list of why we resist change in the workplace when weâre often inclined to embrace changes in our own lives such as new technology ranges from the pragmatic to the psychological. Change can lead to a loss of control, increased uncertainty, potential loss of status or even loss of a job, loss of colleagues and even the symbolism of losing touch with the past. Underlying this list is fear and as a result, some people become intransigent either actively or passively. As well as fear, thereâs scepticism (âwill it really make a difference?â) and cynicism (âthe bosses donât know what theyâre doingâ).
One will find resistance to reasonable changes, right decisions and logical strategic choices and all of the reasons behind the resistance will be good from someoneâs perspective. In organisations, there is what Schien (1988) calls a psychological contract between management and employees. This contract contains elements such as money in exchange for time at work, social need satisfaction and security in exchange for hard work and loyalty, opportunities for challenging work in exchange for high-quality work and creative effort. Schien says that this contact is constantly being negotiated and this can make changes processes difficult when people donât agree with the change in the contract. For example, when I worked in the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, jobs were perceived as being for life but funding cuts meant that departments were closed and positions were lost.
People want to defend their jobs and their work practices and the view from an operational perspective is often different to the view from management. Thereâs also a natural tendency to resist the unknown. Belief comes into it as well. People may simply not believe that a new strategy will solve a problem or that management has the capacity to implement effective change. And they may be right.
Reading Thomas (2015) reminded me that resistance to change isnât always bad even though itâs often framed that way in management textbooks. She points out that we do generally admire people who âresistâ but thatâs usually about politics â resist Wall Street, resist apartheid, resist bad Government arts policy. But in organisations, resisters are usually viewed as conservative or fearful or selfish. Pfeffer and Sutton (2006, 185) note that sometimes âresistance to change is well-founded, well-intentioned, and actually helpful in keeping companies from doing dumb things. Even presumably good changes carry substantial risks because of the disruption and uncertainty that occur while the transformation is taking place.â
Resistance can show itself in outright conflict involving unions and industrial action, but more likely in arts organisations, it will show itself through delays and detachment where staff have no investment in the process or the outcome. Strategies can be practical (withholding information) and fanciful (escapism), verbal (satire, cynicism) or physical (damaging property or deleting files).
Advice on how to get over such resistance includes investing in training and development, finding people who are open to change, creating an environment where employees can voice their concerns, improving communication, confirming what wonât change, including resisters in the planning process, helping people with counselling and the final strategy, using coercion to get things done including getting rid of the resisters (Walmsley 2013; Onsman 1991). Hagoort (2005) has a slightly more positive take on this last point, suggesting that there should be special farewell parties for those who canât face the new world and want to explore opportunities elsewhere.
While most of the challenges listed under the heading of âchangeâ in management textbooks tend to be the response of individuals to change, Walmsley (2013, 227) points out that one of the biggest barriers for arts organisations is money. Because they tend to be underfunded and under-capitalised and with limited financial reserves, they lack what he calls the ârequisite development capital to embark on any meaningful process of change and innovationâ.
Another approach to resistance is to ârecast [it] as a resource and something to be encouraged â even celebrated â in order to arrive at a new and shared consensus of understanding. The change agentâs role, rather than pre-empting, controlling and eradicating resistance, should be to invite it, encourage it and harness its valueâ (Thomas 2015, 64).
In other words, reaction to change could be seen as thoughtful, productive or facilitative rather than problematic.
Undertaking Change
The most famous writer on organisational change is John Kotter (1996). His direction for change, quoted in every management textbook Iâve read, consists of eight stages:
1.Establish an urgency for change
2.Form a powerful guiding coalition
3.Create a vision that people understand and aspire to
4.Communicate the vision
5.Empower others to act on the vision
6.Plan for an create short-term wins
7.Consolidate improvements that produce more change
8.Institutionalise new approaches.
A more sophisticated take on Kotterâs advice can be found in Bolman and Deal (2013). They look at organisational change through what they call âframesâ â structural, human resources, political and symbolic which add richness and density to Kotterâs model. For example, in order to create a sense of urgency, one needs to involve people and get input (human resources), network with key players (political) and tell a compelling story (symbolic). In communicating the vision, they suggest itâs done not just with words but with deeds such as visible leadership involvement and ceremonies (symbolic) while one builds alliances and defuses opposition (political) (391).
Another famous management writer, Henry Mintzberg (2009) challenges Kotterâs change model and asks, for example, what happens when the driving leader leaves and whether transformational change couldnât come from the bottom up or the middle out? Heâs right to ask those questions but it doesnât mean that a number of the practical steps in Kotterâs model arenât worth doing no matter where the idea of transformation starts.
Hudson (2009, 301) says that there are two components central to change management â the head elements (vision and analysis) and the heart elements (people and their emotions). Often organisations will create a plan for change based on good analysis and reflective of the mission but fail to take into account that change is about people even when itâs about technology or structure or output. A strategic change in direction usually means a change in culture and management can overlook the impact of that change. If change by definition leads to uncertainty, itâs important not just to change the organisation but also the way people think about themselves and their capacity to operate in the new world (Hewson & Holden 2011). Sometimes, getting people to re-envisage their organisation will help them come up with ideas for change. Bolman and Deal (2013, 262) talk about the power of the metaphor and give some wonderful examples as organisations imagine what they are and what they might become, such as a maze becoming a well-oiled wheel, a wet noodle turning into an oak tree, an aggregation of competing teams becoming a symphony orchestra.
Where it goes wrong in Bolman and Dealâs (2013, 390) view is when management relies mainly on reason and structure while neglecting the human, political and symbolic elements. Hudson lists a number of common problems under the headings of process (for example, missing out a stage, talking too much and saying too little, writing a memo instead of lighting a fire, no quick wins) and people (disrespect of the past, staff voice isnât heard, too few innovators, unclear benefits).
As leadership is about taking an organisation forward, each different leadership style is connected to change outcomes. There is no doubt that autocratic and charismatic political leaders can deliver change, but often at great cost (think Stalin, Hitler, Pol Pot). Transformational, participatory and relationship leaders are better suited to change in arts organisations. To be an effective change leader you need to be very clear about key issues and flexible about detail, understand peopleâs frustrations, expect to be criticised and allow time for reflection (Hudson 2009, 326).
Even if you have all these skills in your kitbag, thereâll be challenges which may differ according to whether youâre a newcomer or youâre already leading the organisation. For example, if youâre inside and get promoted, there may be resistance from your colleagues to accepting you as their new leader, your organisational peers may be jealous, you may have a one-sided view of the organisation and have limited experience in introducing change. If youâve come from outside, you probably donât have a complete picture of the problems and face a steeper learning curve but you may have a more even-handed approach to the overall picture (Thomas 2008).
The story told by Hewison, Holden and Jones (2013) about the Royal Shakespeare Company is one where change is driven by both an incomer and someone who knew the company well. In reflecting on the outcome, the authors conclude that because organisational change occurs in already stretched organisations and where short-term pressures can distract from pursuing long-term goals, leaders need to be deeply involved in the change process. Through this, they demonstrate confidence and thus may help overcome peoplesâ fear and uncertainty.
Examples
There are differences in the capacity to embrace change between arts organisations because of size and sector as well as other qualities such as financial capacity and leadership. For example, established institutions such as art museums are difficult to change because of their history. As De Paoli (2011, 3) says â[a] high degree of institutionalizing leads to the conservation of values [and] traditionsâ. A new organisation may be more fleet of foot even though their very newness may...