Tissue Engineering Made Easy

Farhana Akter

• Publisher: Academic Press
• Year: 2016
• ISBN:
  9780128092286
• Topic: Technology & Engineering
• Subtopic: Biomedical Science
• Index: Technology & Engineering

Tissue Engineering Made Easy provides concise, easy to understand, up-to-date information about the most important topics in tissue engineering. These include background and basic principles, clinical applications for a variety of organs (skin, nerves, eye, heart, lungs and bones), and the future of the field. The descriptions and explanations of each topic are such that those who have not had any exposure to the principles and practice of tissue engineering will be able to understand them, and the volume will serve as a source for self-teaching to get readers to a point where they can effectively engage with active researchers.

• Offers readers a truly introductory way to understand the concepts, challenges and the new trends in reconstructive medicine
• Features accessible language for students beginning their research careers, private practice physician collaborators, and residents just beginning their research rotation
• Addresses the specifics for a variety of organs/systems – nerves, skin, bone, cardiovascular, respiratory, ophthalmic
• Provides examples from clinical and everyday situations

Chapter 1

What is Tissue Engineering?

F. Akter,    University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom

Abstract

The term “tissue engineering” was officially coined at a National Science Foundation workshop in 1988. It was created to represent a new scientific field focused on the regeneration of tissues from cells with the support of biomaterials, scaffolds, and growth factors.

Keywords

Tissue engineering; regenerative medicine; cell therapy; scaffolds; growth factors

1.1 Introduction

The term “tissue engineering” was officially coined at a National Science Foundation workshop in 1988. It was created to represent a new scientific field focused on the regeneration of tissues from cells with the support of biomaterials, scaffolds, and growth factors (Heineken and Skalak, 1991).

Tissues or organs can be damaged in various ways, such as by trauma, congenital diseases, or cancer. Treatment options include surgical repair, artificial prostheses, transplantation, and drug therapy. However, full restoration of damaged tissues can be difficult, and the resulting tissues are not always functionally or esthetically satisfactory. The damage to tissues may be irreversible, and can lead to lifelong problems for the patient. In such cases, organ transplantation can be lifesaving; however, this is greatly limited by the lack of donor tissue. Surgeons therefore face a number of challenges in reconstructing damaged tissues and organs.

Tissue engineering enables the regeneration of a patient’s own tissues, and thus provides the potential for reducing the need for donor organ transplants. It also reduces the problems faced with traditional donor organ transplantation, such as poor biocompatibility and biofunctionality, and immune rejection. However, despite extensive animal research, human studies are limited. Although tissues such as skin grafts, cartilage, bladders, and a trachea have been implanted in patients, the procedures are still experimental and costly. A focus on low-cost production strategies is thus critical for the successful mass production of effective tissue-engineered products. Solid organs with more complex histological structures—such as the heart, lung, and liver—have been successfully recreated in the lab, and although they are not currently ready for implantation into humans, the tissues can be useful in drug development and can reduce the number of animals used for research (Griffith and Naughton, 2002).

In the following chapters we discuss the tissue engineering applications available for different systems of the body, and their relevance to clinical practice and surgical treatment.

What is Tissue Engineering?

1. The use of a combination of cells, engineering materials, and suitable biochemical factors to improve or replace biological functions.

2. An interdisciplinary field of research that applies both the principles of engineering and the processes and phenomena of the life sciences toward the development of biological substitutes that restore, maintain, or improve tissue function (Langer and Vacanti, 1993).

What is Regenerative Medicine?

Regenerative medicine refers to both cell therapy and tissue engineering. Cell therapy utilizes new cells to replace damaged cells within a tissue to restore its integrity and function. Tissue engineering encompasses three approaches: the use of bioactive molecules such as growth factors that encourage tissue induction; the use of cells that respond to various signals; and the seeding of cells into three-dimensional matrices to create tissue-like constructs to replace the lost parts of tissues or organs (Howard et al., 2008).

References

1. Griffith LG, Naughton G. Tissue engineering—current challenges and expanding opportunities. Science. 2002;295(5557):1009–1014.

2. Heineken FG, Skalak R. Tissue engineering: a brief overview. J Biomech Eng. 1991;113(2):111–112.

3. Howard D, Buttery LD, Shakesheff KM, Roberts SJ. Tissue engineering: strategies, stem cells and scaffolds. J Anat. 2008;213:66–72.

4. Langer R, Vacanti JP. Tissue engineering. Science. 1993;260:920–926.

Chapter 2

Principles of Tissue Engineering

F. Akter, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom

Abstract

Tissue engineering (TE) provides opportunities to create functional constructs for tissue repair and the study of stem cell behavior, and also provides models for studying various diseases. In order to produce an engineered tissue, a three-dimensional environment in the form of a porous scaffold is required. The construct also requires appropriate cells and growth factors, forming the TE “triad”. The cell synthesizes new tissue, while the scaffold provides the appropriate environment for cells to proliferate and function. Growth factors facilitate and promote cells to regenerate new tissue. It is important to tailor the components of the TE triad for specific tissue applications. Each component is individually important, and understanding their interactions is key for successful TE.

Keywords

Angiogenesis; biomaterials; bioreactors; extracellular matrix; fabrication techniques; growth factors; hypoxia; stem cells

2.1 Introduction

Tissue engineering (TE) provides opportunities to create functional constructs for tissue repair and the study of stem cell behavior, and also provides models for studying various diseases. In order to produce an engineered tissue, a three-dimensional environment in the form of a porous scaffold is required. The construct also requires appropriate cells and growth factors, forming the TE “triad” (Fig. 2.1). The cell synthesizes new tissue, while the scaffold provides the appropriate environment for cells to proliferate and function. Growth factors facilitate and promote cells to regenerate new tissue. It is important to tailor the components of the TE triad for specific tissue applications. Each component is individually important, and understanding their interactions is key for successful TE (Grayson et al., 2009; Jakab et al., 2010).

Figure 2.1 Key components of tissue engineering: embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs).

Tissue engineering has allowed the successful creation of isolated constructs, and also hollow organs such as those found in the cardiovascular (see chapter: Cardiovascular Tissue Engineering) and respiratory systems (see chapter: Lung Tissue Engineering) and the gastrointestinal tract. The gastrointestinal tract can be engineered to repair damage caused by diseases such as stomach cancer and inflammatory bowel disease, and to replace sphincter tissue. Numerous studies have used collagen scaffolds seeded with intestinal smooth muscle to create intestinal tissue. However, it has been difficult to create a tissue that mimics the natural contractile function of the smooth muscle cells in vivo (Hendow et al, 2016). Replacing sphincter tissue can reduce the significant morbidity associated with fecal and urinary incontinence in patients. Animal studies have shown that scaffolds seeded with mesenchymal stem cells can lead to improved leak pressure in a rat urinary incontinence model (Shi et al, 2014). However, fully functional tissue-engineered rectal sphincters have yet to be created. Bladder cancer affects millions of people w...

Table of contents

• Cover image
• Title page
• Table of Contents
• Copyright
• List of Contributors
• Acknowledgments
• Editor Biography
• Chapter 1. What is Tissue Engineering?
• Chapter 2. Principles of Tissue Engineering
• Chapter 3. Skin Engineering
• Chapter 4. Neural Tissue Engineering
• Chapter 5. Ophthalmic Tissue Engineering
• Chapter 6. Cardiovascular Tissue Engineering
• Chapter 7. Lung Tissue Engineering
• Chapter 8. Bone and Cartilage Tissue Engineering
• Index