A Summary of Christian History

Robert A. Baker, John M. Landers

• Publisher: B&H Academic
• Year: 2005
• ISBN:
  9781433669156
• Topic: Theology & Religion
• Subtopic: History of Christianity

Originally published in 1959, A Summary of Christian History has been a classic text for introductory-level studies of Christian history for more than four decades. Even in the face of advancing history, new findings, and changing perspectives, Dr. Baker's original classic has remained popular decades beyond the normal life expectancy of a textbook.

In this third edition, Dr. John Landers, a former student of Dr. Baker, builds on the original goal of helping students grasp the broad contours of Christian history without becoming lost in a maze of historical detail.

1

---

THE BEGINNINGS OF HISTORICAL CHRISTIANITY

Greek Influences on Christianity
Roman Influences on Christianity
Jewish Influences on Christianity
The Life of Jesus
The First-Century Church

Period of local witnessing (30-45)
Period of missionary expansion (45-68)
Period of westward growth (68-100)

Christianity arose within Palestinian Judaism under Roman rule, but it soon spread to the Greek-speaking cities of the empire. Any study of the New Testament immediately introduces us to Greek, Roman, and Jewish influences.

Greek Influences on Christianity

The conquests of Alexander the Great (356-23 BC) scattered Greek culture to most of the known world. After Alexander's death, his generals and their successors ruled Palestine for more than 150 years. Greek philosophy, Greek language, and Greek spirit contributed to the Christian movement.

Greek philosophy was scattered everywhere and helped prepare for the coming of Christ. Atheistic and skeptical philosophy turned many from superstition and intensified their hunger for the true God. Other varieties of Greek philosophy helped prepare for the coming of Christ by glorifying the human spirit and valuing spiritual and moral truth.

The Greek language became the common tongue throughout the Mediterranean world. This common language brought a sense of unity to the various nations in the Roman Empire. Palestinian Jews learned to speak Greek in order to carry on trade in the markets. When some of them became Christian missionaries, they preached widely without needing to learn another language. Christians found Greek fully adequate as the language of the New Testament.

The Greek spirit also contributed to the Christian movement. This spirit included daring initiative, sweeping vision, search for order in the universe, appreciation for the individual, search for the causes and consequences of human actions, and an intense love for truth.

Roman Influences on Christianity

Greek rule in Palestine ended when Jewish patriots under Judas Maccabeus established independence (about 167 BC). A century later Roman soldiers took possession of Palestine (63 BC). The New Testament reveals evidence of Roman rule—Roman guards, Roman jailers, Roman castles, Roman governors, Roman centurions. The Pharisees asked Jesus if a Jew should serve under Roman rule. Jewish tax gatherers like Matthew were unpopular because they collected taxes for Rome.

Roman rule both helped and hindered Christianity. The strong centralized government provided a measure of peace and protection. Rome did not allow violence within the empire, fearing it might spark political revolt. Christian missionaries moved among the many people of the Mediterranean world with little political friction. Local officials protected Roman citizens like Paul from unjust treatment. A network of Roman highways and seaways made travel safer and more convenient. Two hundred years later the language of the Romans would be adopted as the principal medium for Christian evangelization.

Yet the Roman government became Christianity's greatest enemy before the end of the first century. The imperial government hardly valued the individual, preferring religious devotion in the service of the state. Roman armies accepted the gods of every nation they conquered, requiring only that the subjugated nations accept Roman gods. Although they tolerated religious diversity, they required that all people sacrifice to the Roman emperor—all except the Jews.

Stairs of Caiaphus up which Roman guards led Jesus to trial.

Jewish Influences on Christianity

The Old Testament narrates God's choice of a people and their formation as a nation. The kingdom of Israel divided into Northern and Southern Kingdoms (about 930 BC). The Northern Kingdom fell and went into Assyrian captivity (722 BC). The fall of the Southern Kingdom and ensuing Babylonian captivity (587 BC), however, was followed by the return of a remnant to Palestine after 539. These Jews remained subject to Persian rule until Alexander's Greek army conquered them. The Greek period (334-167 BC), a century of Jewish independence (167-63 BC), and subsequent Roman rule make up the history of the Jews to the New Testament era.

These centuries of captivity and suffering burned two truths into the Jewish people: the unity and universality of God. Although they had no temple during the Babylonian exile, the Jews experienced God's presence. They returned from exile as zealous monotheists. Before the exile the Jews had conceived of God in national terms, but in captivity their isolation from every material reminder of a national deity brought them to understand that the individual must commune with God.

A movement known as the Dispersion began early in the Greek period. Many Jews from Palestine relocated voluntarily to almost every part of the Mediterranean world, where they established synagogues as houses of worship and community centers. In Jesus' day seven thousand synagogues stretched across the Roman Empire, but the center of Judaism was the Jerusalem temple, exclusive locale of Jewish sacrifices.

Many Greeks became Jewish proselytes, but the expansion of Judaism was hindered by Jewish particularism and its division into many parties and groups.

Scribes were important to synagogue worship. At first their chief duty was copying Scriptures. Soon they became experts in what the Scriptures said, and their duties included scriptural interpretation and instruction.

The Essenes arose about 150 BC, perhaps influenced by Persian religious ideas, and they numbered about four thousand in Jesus' day. They were characterized by rigorous orthodoxy, celibacy, communal property ownership, and the elimination of animal sacrifices in worship. Qumran was apparently the center of the Essene community. The Dead Sea Scrolls, discovered in 1947, are still being examined to determine more about the Essene movement.

The Pharisees took distinct form during the Maccabean struggle (beginning about 167 BC), but they reflected a separatist attitude that may date back to the Samaritans in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah (about 500 BC). The New Testament pictures the Pharisees as narrow, bigoted, and to some extent hypocritical. They were numerous and respected in the days of Jesus, rallying to traditional supernaturalism and ceremonial exactness.

The Sadducees probably arose during the second century before Christ. They were friendly to Roman and Greek culture and represented religious and political liberalism. Their rationalism led them to deny the resurrection and divine providence, to refuse all tradition, and to emphasize the freedom of the human will.

The Samaritans descended from Jews who intermarried with Gentiles transported to Palestine after the Assyrian captivity.

The Herodians were Jewish nationalists who supported Herod's family against Rome.

The Zealots were more violent Jewish nationalists, probably heirs of the Maccabean tradition of fervent zeal to throw off the foreign yoke.

The Life of Jesus

This was the world in which Jesus was born. Almost all that is known of his earthly life may be found in the Synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke) and in John. Though all four Gospels speak of John's ministry, each looks at the life of Christ from its own point of view. John's Gospel describes Jesus' eternal nature and preincarnate existence; Matthew and Luke record his genealogy. Matthew probably gives the genealogy of Joseph while Luke deals with the genealogy of Mary. Matthew and Luke recount the birth and childhood of Jesus and John the Baptist, his forerunner.

The birth of Jesus Christ occurred about 4 BC. He began his public ministry about AD 27 and was crucified about AD 30. (Dates have been calculated according to Christ's birth since the sixth century, but those who set up the system miscalculated by several years.) When Herod died in 4 BC, his territory was divided so that each of his three sons might share authority. Philip ruled over the extreme northeastern area east of Jordan; Herod Antipas ruled in Galilee and Perea; both were in office during Jesus' ministry and are referred to in the Gospels. Archelaus, the third son of Herod, received central Palestine containing Judea, Idumea, and Samaria; but he was removed from office by the Roman emperor in AD 6. Roman governors ruled this portion of Palestine. During the ministry of Jesus the governor was Pontius Pilate (AD 26-36).

The Lord's ministry may be divided into seven sections. (1) Jesus' early Judean ministry began with his baptism, the calling of his first disciples, and a visit to Jerusalem. (2) During the Galilean ministry, which lasted about a year and a half, Jesus was rejected at Nazareth, moved to Capernaum, completed choosing of the Twelve, preached the Sermon on the Mount, and toured Galilee three times. (3) There were also several withdrawals from the crowds in order to give special instruction to the disciples, for securing the great confession at Caesarea Philippi, and for the transfiguration experience. (4) His later Judean ministry continued for about three months and is described by Luke and John. During these days Jesus and his disciples attended the Feasts of Tabernacles and of Dedication in Jerusalem. (5) All four Gospels tell of Jesus' Perean ministry. During this brief time, Jesus worked his last miracles, taught through parables, and foretold his resurrection. (6) Jesus' last week began with the triumphal entry and closed with the crucifixion. (7) His postresurrection ministry continued for about forty days and closed with his ascension.

Both the method and content of Jesus' teachings were remarkable. He taught the people using parables, questions, discourses, and debates. His life and teachings revealed God's person and purpose. His dominant theme was love. Because God loves people, Christ died on the cross for their sins. By personal trust in Christ, each individual can receive a birth from above and assurance of eternal life. The conquering power of the cross and the ultimate triumph of God's kingdom were central to his teachings. He established his church, a local autonomous body where two or three gathering together in prayer could find his presence and power.

After Jesus' ascension, the apostles he had chosen and instructed set out on the seemingly impossible task contained in the Great Commission. Despite efforts of many other religions to attract persons, Christianity began growing like a mustard seed. From a human standpoint, there are several possible reasons for this development.

• The Christian message of God's revelation in Christ met a felt need of many pagans.
• Christians had a burning conviction that Christ alone could save the lost world about them. They believed there was no time to be lost since the return of Christ was imminent.
• Christians became missionaries; the sacred fire leaped from friend to friend.

The First-Century Church

The seventy years of Christian growth from Christ's ascens...

Table of contents

• Preface
• 1. The Beginnings of Historical Christianity
• 2. Pagan Opposition to Christianity
• 3. The Struggle for Purity
• 4. The Close of an Era
• 5. The Age of Constantine
• 6. Roman Catholic Foundations
• 7. Roman Catholic Expansions
• 8. Religious Opposition to Roman Authority
• 9. Throne and Altar
• 10. Roman Catholic Domination
• 11. The High Middle Ages
• 12. The Decline of Papal Prestige and the Rise of Nation States
• 13. The Renaissance
• 14. Renaissance Church Councils
• 15. Ecclesiastical Dissent
• 16. Causes of the Reformation
• 17. The Lutheran Reform
• 18. The Zwinglian and Calvinistic Reforms
• 19. Anabaptists and the Radical Reformation
• 20. The Anglican Reform
• 21. The Roman Catholic Revival
• 22. The Thirty Years War
• 23. The Seaborne Expansion of Christianity
• 24. Continental European Christianity, 1648-1789
• 25. British Christianity, 1649-1789
• 26. Colonial North American Christianity
• 27. Continental European Christianity since 1789
• 28. British Christianity since 1789
• 29. The United States and Canada
• 30. The Worldwide Missionary Movement
• 31. Global Christianity
• Appendix: Universal Councils by the Roman Reckoning
• General Bibliography
• Index