Augustine and His World - Francis of Assisi and His World

Andrew Knowles, Rev. Dr Luke Penkett, Mark Galli

• Publisher: Lion Scholar
• Year: 2019
• ISBN:
  9781912552252
• Topic: Théologie et religion
• Subtopic: Histoire du Christianisme

Have you ever wanted accessible introductions to key figures and periods of Christian history?

Augustine and His World

Augustine is one of the giants of the Christian church. From his birth in North Africa and his days as a relatively permissive young man, through his midlife conversion to Christianity and career as bishop of Hippo, his story has intrigued and inspired every generation for over 1, 600 years.

As a thinker, teacher, writer and debater, Augustine's greatness lay in his ability to relate the philosophies of Ancient Greece and Rome to the precepts of the Christian faith. Augustine also saved the church itself from disintegrating into rival factions by forging sound doctrine in the fires of controversy. This immersive account of Augustine's life helps readers understand the world he came from and the enormous contribution he made to the church, both of his day and of the future.

Francis of Assisi and His World

Francis of Assisi is one of the world's most popular religious figures, and also one of the most misrepresented.

In this lively and engaging account of Francis's story - from his hedonistic youth to his emergence as a Christian leader of great charisma and intensity - Mark Galli attempts to strip away the modern gloss in order to discover the real man and the world in which he lived. The saint revealed here is not the romantic free spirit of popular imagination, but a contentious figure who combined a deep mysticism with radical commitment and, above all, sought to glorify God, the creator.

PART 1

AUGUSTINE
AND HIS WORLD

INTRODUCTION

Augustine is one of the giants of the Christian Church. From his birth in North Africa and his days as a relatively permissive young man, through his midlife conversion to Christianity and career as bishop of Hippo, his story has intrigued and inspired every generation for over 1,600 years.

It is as a thinker, teacher, writer and debater that Augustine’s influence has proved most strategic. His greatness lay in his ability to relate the philosophies of Ancient Greece and Rome to the precepts of the Christian faith. Augustine also saved the Church itself from disintegrating into rival factions, by forging sound doctrine in the fires of controversy. Not only did Augustine provide a basis for doctrinal unity, but he presented the Church with a vision for its role in the world. Of all the Christian writers from the earliest centuries down to the present day Augustine is not only one of the most prolific but is also one of the most widely studied, remaining as controversial and influential today as he was during his life.

At the beginning of this third Christian millennium Augustine’s fame and fascination are largely due to City of God and Confessions, his two greatest literary masterpieces. But what of the remaining hundred or so books? And what about the man who wrote them?

In ‘Augustine and His World’ we examine Augustine’s life in a series of chapters that look at his adolescence, search for wisdom, conversion, ordination and episcopate. On the way through this life story those influences that most deeply affected Augustine, questions of reason and faith, the interface of pagan philosophy and Christian belief, orthodoxy, and heresy are explored. The final chapter of this account presents aspects of Augustine’s significance for subsequent generations.

Augustine also broke new ground in personal spirituality. He probed the depths and recesses of his own heart and mind, memory and motives, to discern the influence of God in his life, and so discovered lessons and insights for every human being. It is not surprising to find, then, that in his own day Augustine was deeply respected not only as a theologian but also as a priest and bishop.

Augustine’s ideas are a bridge spanning the gulf between the ancient and medieval worlds, from Aristotle to Anselm. His spiritual quest and ability to express his thoughts reach right to our own day. One prayer in particular that sprang from Augustine’s passionate and inquiring soul, ‘Our heart is restless until it rests in you’, seems to be as pertinent now as it was when it was expressed 16 centuries ago.

As with so much historical study, our work has relied on the research and reflections of many others, and especially on the scholars whose books are listed in the section ‘Further Reading’. We freely acknowledge our debt to them and hope that new readers will discover their work through this introductory study. The titles of Augustine’s writings and their dates are based on Augustine through the Ages: An Encyclopedia (General Editor, Allan D. Fitzgerald O.S.A.); and for quotations from Confessions we have used Henry Chadwick’s excellent translation (Oxford 2009).

Finally, we would like to express our gratitude to Rosy Baxter, our secretary at Chelmsford Cathedral, who has worked so cheerfully and tirelessly as amanuensis.

CHAPTER 1

THE WORLD BEFORE AUGUSTINE

The province of Africa was an important and prosperous part of the Roman empire. For the Romans, Africa was not the vast continent that was later discovered, but the area that had been controlled by the main city and sea port of Carthage during the Punic Wars. Today this area is covered by Tunisia and Western Libya. The Punic Wars, waged during the third and second centuries before the birth of Christ, were to decide whether Rome or Carthage should control the sea routes and trade of the western Mediterranean. Despite the genius of the Carthaginian leader, Hannibal, who sprang a surprise attack on Rome by crossing the Alps with elephants, the Romans won the wars and destroyed Carthage in 146 BC.

Roman rule

In the middle of the fourth century AD, the Roman empire had reached the summit of its extent and influence. Its territory extended from Hadrian’s Wall, in northern Britain, to Antioch and the eastern provinces, some 3,000 miles from Rome. The north-eastern frontier lay between Germany and barbarian tribes: Goths, Huns and Vandals. To the south, with its seaboard on the Mediterranean, was the province of Africa. It is here, in a town called Thagaste, that Augustine was born on AD 13 November 354.

In theory the Roman empire was a realm of peace, justice and prosperity, founded on Roman law and protected by the Roman army. But the military were overextended in maintaining such long frontiers, and barbarian tribes were pressing on the borders. Security was costly in money and recruits, so that treaties, alliances and compromises had to be made with real or potential enemies. Some barbarian tribes were enlisted as Roman auxiliaries and became as well armed and war wise as the Romans themselves. From time to time, the army commanders themselves attempted to seize power, both in Italy and in the provinces, and it was a period of almost continuous civil war. Meanwhile, the Roman upper class had become complacent and self-indulgent – preoccupied with personal status and political infighting. In short, the peak of Roman supremacy was also the cusp of decline.

Augustine’s life would span the decline and fall of the Roman empire. On New Year’s Eve 406, a horde of Goths, Huns and Vandals would cross the frozen Rhine to sweep into Gaul and then across the Pyrenees into Spain. In 410, Rome itself would be overwhelmed and sacked by the forces of Alaric the Goth.

Meanwhile, speed of communication was one of the wonders of the Roman world. Straight roads and safe seaways (at least in the summer months), together with the common language of Latin, meant that news and instructions could travel rapidly between the centre of the empire and its provinces. But the emperors were not always at the centre and the centre was not always at Rome. The fastest communication was at the pace of a galloping horse, with riders delivering letters by relay through a series of posting stations. But armies of infantry could manoeuvre no faster than marching sandals and aching legs would allow. ‘Rapid response’ to barbarian incursions or local riots could take several months. So it was that when Emperor Theodosius I died in AD 395, this vast but unwieldy empire was divided between his two sons, Honorius in the west and Arcadius in the east. The capital of the western empire continued to be Rome, although the administrative centre might be elsewhere. The capital of the eastern empire was Constantinople.

Communication between Rome and North Africa was relatively simple, with a summer sea voyage from Rome’s port of Ostia bringing passengers to Carthage in a matter of days. Augustine would be both a student and a teacher in Carthage, and the voyages to Ostia and back (albeit five years apart) would be the only sea journeys of his life.

When the Romans conquered Carthage, they took over the Phoenician cities along the mediterranean coast and developed the towns of the inland plateau. They linked them by roads and bridges to one another and the sea ports, and improved the water supply by building aqueducts, reservoirs and cisterns. As a result, the province of Africa entered an era of unparalleled prosperity, with towns and rural estates alike thriving on commerce and agriculture.

The capital, Carthage, was developed by successive Roman emperors. Augustus, who was the first emperor (from 14 BC to AD 27) levelled the Byrsa – the high point overlooking the city – and built an esplanade. Hadrian (emperor from AD 117 to 138) constructed an aqueduct 80 miles long to supply the city with millions of gallons of water. His successor, Antoninus, completed the huge baths and a massive basilica. There was a grand amphitheatre, the largest circus outside Rome and a fine palace for the proconsul. Carthage became the second city of the western Roman empire.

From Carthage, merchants traded throughout the known world. The export of cereal crops made North Africa the breadbasket of the empire, and especially of Rome. The region produced olives and olive oil in huge quantities, red-slip tableware and marble of a quality for monumental buildings. Hadrian quarried marble from Africa for his Pantheon in Rome, transporting 50-foot columns over high mountains to the port of Thabraca. During this period of peace and prosperity, educated people built comfortable villas, which they decorated with exquisite mosaics.

Inland, peasant farmers lived in ancient, close-knit communities: the Berber or Carthaginian underclass that had no stake in Roman colonialism. They maintained their Punic cults and language, although in time their fertility gods became identified with the gods and goddesses of Greece and Rome: ‘Baal-Hammon’ with Saturn, god of time and harvest, and ‘Tanit’ with Juno, goddess of marriage. But even those who resisted Roman ways could still make their living by growing corn and olives for Italy. Vast olive groves stretched 50 miles further south than their cultivation line today, as the remains of olive presses and the ruins of fine buildings testify. At remote El Djem was a venue to seat 30,000 people: the amphitheatre of Roman Thysdrus, which for a time supplanted Carthage.

A Roman legion was based in Africa for internal security and to help with engineering and agricultural projects. There was also a cohort on duty in Carthage. But the soldiers who assisted with the construction of roads and irrigation could be heavy handed in matters of law and order, and the army presence was an aggravation. The military seized land on which nomadic tribes had for centuries grazed their cattle, causing resentment and outbreaks of violence. They also used indigenous people as migrant labour at harvest time, requiring them by law to give six days’ work per year in return for squatters’ rights. They often required them to work more, which was another cause of unrest.

The most fertile land was the valley of the Medjerda, where Augustine was bor...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Contents
• Part 1: Augustine and His World
• Part 2: Francis of Assisi and His World
• Further Reading
• Index