Covering thinkers from Aristotle to Saussure and Chomsky, "Introducing Linguistics" reveals the rules and beauty that underlie language, our most human skill.
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Human beings have probably been speaking for as long as we have existed, but it was only around 3,000 years ago that anybody began to be curious about language and to start examining it. This happened independently in two places.
GRAMMATICAL ANALYSIS DEVELOPED VERY EARLY IN ANCIENT INDIA. A DESCRIPTION OF GRAMMAR ALSO APPEARED AMONG ANCIENT GREEKS.
We might begin with an example from the Indian tradition.
An Indian Linguist
Pā
ini’s life (circa 5th century BC) is unknown, but his work, the Astādhayāyī, is a culmination of earlier studies in phonology and grammar.
Pā
ini’s approach to grammar requires that the pieces of words should first be glued together in order. Rules should then be applied to convert these sequences into the correct surface forms. Pānini worked on Sanskrit, but we can illustrate his method very well with English. Consider the verb
penetrate
and its related adjective
impenetrable
meaning “not able to be penetrated”. This consists of the negative prefix
in – (as in insane),
the stem penetrate
and the suffix – ble
So, to start with, we have
in-penetrate-ble
Now we need some rules, which we will apply to pronunciation, not necessarily to spelling.
First, if a verb-stem ends in -ate immediately followed by another consonant (like b), drop the t of the verb-stem.
Second, if we now have a long A sound followed by the suffix -ble, change this long A to the weak vowel found in the last syllable of circus and carrot.
Third, if an n is immediately followed by a consonant pronounced with the lips, like b, change the n to m.
These rules produce the required result:
impenetrable
Pā
ini’s formal style of phonological analysis looks ahead 2,000 years to Noam Chomsky’s approach in the 1960s – and, in fact, Chomsky has acknowledged his tribute to the Indian grammarian.
I’LL BE DOING SOMETHING LIKE THIS … BUT MUCH, MUCH LATER!
The Greek Origins of Linguistics
Even though the Indian tradition was much the more sophisticated of the two, it was the Greeks who founded the European tradition.
The great Greek scholar Aristotle (384–322 BC) took the first step.
I DIVIDED THE SENTENCE INTO TWO PARTS CALLED THE SUBJECT AND THE PREDICATE.
Grammar or Parts of Speech
The Greek work culminated in the writings of Apollonius Dyscolus (110–175 AD) and Dionysius Thrax (second to first centuries BC). It was Thrax who produced the first complete grammar of Greek, only parts of which survive today. Ancient Greek was a language in which most words could take lots and lots of different endings for grammatical purposes.
By looking at the behaviour of Greek words, and especially at these endings, Thrax concluded that Greek words fell into just eight classes, which we call the parts of speech.
MY CLASSES WERE NOUNS, VERBS, ARTICLES, PRONOUNS, PREPOSITIONS, CONJUNCTIONS, ADVERBS AND PARTICIPLES.
Thrax’s description of Greek would become the basis of all grammatical description in Europe until well into the 20th century, even though his eight classes were later modified.
Latin Grammar
After the Roman conquest of Greece in the mid-2nd century BC, Roman scholars learned of the Greek work, and they began to apply the same analysis to their own language, Latin.
THIS COPYING DIDN’T TURN OUT TOO BADLY, BECAUSE LATIN WAS RATHER SIMILAR TO GREEK IN ITS STRUCTURE.
The Graeco-Latin tradition was ultimately synthesized in the work of the most influential Roman grammarian, Priscian, who wrote in the 6th century AD. Priscian’s description of Latin is still what we find in most school textbooks of Latin today.
When Europeans finally began to be interested in writing descriptions of their own languages in the 14th and 15th centuries, they mostly tried to impose Priscian’s account of Latin onto their own languages.
THIS WAS SOMEWHAT UNFORTUNATE, SINCE SPANISH, FRENCH, GERMAN AND ITALIAN ARE NOT ALWAYS VERY SIMILAR TO LATIN. WHILE ENGLISH IS VERY DIFFERENT INDEED.
Traditional Grammar
Nevertheless, this traditional Graeco-Roman grammar has continued to be taught in European schools down to the present day.
Except that, in the English-speaking countries, the teaching of English grammar was largely discontinued in the 1960s…
IN THE BELIEF THAT GRAMMAR WAS TOO BORING TO ENGAGE THE ATTENTION OF SCHOOL PUPILS.
The Port-Royal Grammar
The 17th-century French scholars, known as the Port-Royal Circle, put together a remarkably original “universal” grammar of French, one which largely broke free from the Priscianic tradition. Here is a typical example of their analyses.
The invisible God created the visible world.
This sentence is analysed as…
God, who is invisible, created the world, which is visible
… which in turn is decomposed into the three propositions…
THIS ANALYSIS IS STRIKINGLY SIMILAR TO MY EARLIEST 1950s VERSION OF TRANSFORMATIONAL GRAMMAR.
The German polymath Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835), brother of the famous explorer Alexander von Humboldt, likewise tried to develop a universalist and philosophical approach to the study of languages.
The central fact of language is that speakers can make infinite use of the finite resources provided by their language. Though the capacity for language is universal, the individuality of each language is a property of the people who speak it. Every language has its innere Sprachform, or internal structure, which determines its outer form and which is the reflection of its speake...
