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When the actor who played the first TartuffeâPhilibert Gassot (1626â1695), known as Du Croisyâstepped onto the stage at Versailles on 12 May 1664, scholars believe he wore a costume that helped provoke the scandal that engulfed the play.4 Although none of the extant versions of the dramatic text refers to Tartuffe as a clergyman, as Georges Couton persuasively argues the venom with which pious Catholics in Paris greeted MoliĂšreâs play derived in part from the characterâs attire, which evoked the clothing worn by men who sought a career in the church.5 A description MoliĂšre gives of the way he modified the title characterâs attire so as to make him more worldly for the 1667 version of the play allows Couton to deduce that the first Tartuffeâs costume entailed the following elements: âlarge hat, short hair, small collar, no sword, robe without lace.â6 This ensemble, and in particular its small collar, in fact conformed to the clothing worn in the mid-seventeenth century by men enrolled in the seminaries that had been founded in the 1640s by Franceâs leading counter-reformers. Tartuffeâs initial costume and the outrage it elicited highlight that priestly performance was changing and reveals that for seventeenth-century French churchmen the stakes of this transformation were serious enough to compel men of wealth and influence to attack a play that, when the polemic began, had been performed only once, at an event not open to the general public. For the purposes of this book, Tartuffe therefore condenses the processes of priestly transformation the rest of my study unfolds and foregrounds the stakes of priestly performance in seventeenth-century France.
Tartuffeâs clerical-like attire elicited debate because it disrupted a chain of signification leading from a priestâs clothes and body to the Catholic Churchâs authority and ultimately to the perceived truthfulness of Christâs divine presence in the Eucharist.7 For Catholics, in other words, questions about clerical robes cut to faithâs heart and to the foundation for the institutional churchâs legitimacy. A set of beliefs and practices known as investiture held fast many of the signifying links that connected priestly clothing to core Catholic doctrines. The term âinvestitureâ refers to the idea that rites leading to and including the sacrament of ordination endowed a priest with a new character, expressed by his robes, such that outer clothes reflected an inner reality. In the seventeenth century, investiture belonged to a larger project of professionalizing the secular priesthood, meaning priests who did not belong to religious orders. MoliĂšreâs play played with investiture. In doing so, Tartuffeâs original costume threatened to undo twenty years of work Franceâs counter-reformers had done to elevate the ecclesiastical and social standing of secular priests.
Of the three elements, the small collar carried the strongest connotation of seminary-trained, reform-minded secular clergymen. Seminary rules, like those of the Seminary of Saint-Nicolas du Chardonnet in Paris, required seminarians to wear just such a collar. âThe use of collars in the Community of Saint Nicolas,â reads the seminaryâs coutumier, or rule book, âhas been since the beginning of its establishment to wear them modest and very simple as to their style.â8 Not only does Bourdoiseâs portrait display this small collar, the seminaryâs rules even included a pattern titled âLe veritable models des rabats du seminaireâ (The true model of seminary collars), according to which all seminarian collars had to be made.9 By the end of the seventeenth century, conformity among clerics trained in or influenced by seminaries had turned the small collar into a trope for involvement in the Counter-Reformation. According to Antoine FuretiĂšreâs Dictionnaire universel, âOne calls âLittle Collarâ a man who has joined himself to the reform, to devotion, because out of modesty people of the Church wear small collars, whereas people of the world wear big ones adorned with points and lace.â10 At the same time, by the end of the century the phrase âlittle collarâ also doubled as slang for hypocrisy. FuretiĂšre notes that âsometimes it is said in a bad way of hypocrites who assume modest manners, especially by wearing a small collar.â11 Tartuffeâs first costume seems to have played upon the small collarâs simultaneous reference to reform-minded clergymen and artifice.
Tartuffeâs short hair and plain robe, too, evoked seminary garb. As the manuscript minutes of an episcopal conference on the subject of priestly dress held in approximately 1656 or 1657 confirm, by the mid-seventeenth century ecclesiastical ideals called for clergymen to keep their hair cut short, and they were to wear the soutane, which was an ankle-length, long-sleeved black robe.12 Documentary evidence does not indicate that the first Tartuffe wore the tonsure, the shaved circle at the crown of the head worn by clergymen. His short hair, however, would have been enough to signify intention to join the clerical state. The path to priesthood began with a tonsure ceremony in which the bishop symbolically clipped the candidateâs hair.13 Among other signs of readiness for clerical status, to participate in the ceremony candidates were supposed to present themselves before the bishop âwith their hair short and even.â14 For secular clergymen who did not belong to religious orders, short hair represented what Victor Turner would call their liminal status in between the full renunciation of a monk and a laypersonâs complete engagement âdans le siĂšcleâ (in the century), as seminary directors put it.15 In a handbook written for tonsure candidates by Bourdoise, an excerpt from the Italian Catholic reformer Cardinal Bellarmin (1542â1621) explains that the tonsure candidateâs short hair signified âthat one must leave behind all superfluous thoughts and desires, like those for worldly things, riches, honors, pleasures, and other similar things.â16 Short hair thus denoted withdrawal from the world. At the same time, short hair did not represent full renunciation. The rules for the Seminary of Saint-Nicolas du Chardonnet included an entry entitled âCheveuxâ (Hair), which explained that the requirement to wear short hair reminded clergymen to care neither too much nor too little for the physical world: âIt is recommended to priests to not shave their hair, nor to nourish their hair, but only to clip it to a certain length to teach them that they must not totally apply themselves to the care of external things, nor entirely abandon them, but apply themselves with moderation ⊠to the degree required by pure necessity, charity, or obedience.â17 A secular clergymanâs short hair announced to the world that he was in it but not of it. With or without a tonsure, Tartuffeâs short hair would have triggered ecclesiastical associations for the audience.
Tartuffeâs plain garments would have further augmented the clerical...