Kinanthropometry X

Proceedings of the 10th International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry Conference, Held in Conjunction with the 13th Commonwealth International Sport Conference

Mike Marfell-Jones,Tim Olds

• Editorial: Routledge
• Año: 2007
• ISBN:
  9781134108954
• Edición: 1
• Categoría: Biological Sciences
• Categoría: Biophysics

This book provides an up-to-date review of research and scientific knowledge in the field of kinanthropometry. This subject area is defined as the relationship between human structure and function and is exemplified in studies of growth and development, ergonomics, nutrition, human performance and health, among other applications.

This edited collection includes the latest findings in kinanthropometric research and topics include body composition, athlete morphology and performance prediction, 3-dimensional analysis, body sizing, sexual dimorphism, virtual anthropometry, somatotype, bone density, body image and anthropometric pedagogy.

Kinanthropometry X offers essential reading for students, academics and researchers in exercise science, kinanthropometry, physical education and human sciences.

CHAPTER ONE

Pedagogic approaches to teaching anthropometry

A.D. Stewart

School of Health Sciences, The Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, UK

1 INTRODUCTION

Anthropometry is the science of making surface measurements on the human body based on anatomical landmarks. It is recognised as a discipline in its own right in describing the human phenotype, and interfaces with a range of others including biomechanics, physiology and nutrition to have a role in assessing health and sports performance. Despite their apparent simplicity, acquiring the skills for making skinfold, girth or skeletal breadth measurements can be problematic, because a large number of simultaneous tasks need to be performed in a movement which lasts only a few seconds. Evidence of this complexity is readily apparent from the ten hours of practical tuition the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry requires of its instructors to induct professionals into the 17 measurements of the restricted profile (Marfell-Jones et al., 2006). However, other organisations or individuals may fail to do justice to the intricacy of measurement, either by failing to describe methods in sufficient detail for techniques to become truly standardised (WHO, 1989), or by suggesting that attempts to do so are of ‘mistaken exactitude’ in view of errors in predicting body composition from anthropometric data (Durnin, 1997). Since this time, with the advent of a global protocol (ISAK, 2001), the first concern has been addressed, and an increased emphasis on retaining raw data, rather than convert it into tissue masses or percentages (Marfell-Jones, 2001) has largely addressed the latter.

Of concern to all practitioners in science is the reproducibility of methods and data, so a procedure can be replicated by different personnel in a different setting. With anthropometry, those who quantify the error of repeated measurements become aware of the pivotal role of standardisation in enhancing intra and inter-tester reliability. Relative to skinfold measurements made by an experienced tester, 30 minutes’ tuition has been shown to produce a substantial improvement in inexperienced testers measurements when compared with those of a group not receiving instruction (Kerr et al., 1994). Fitness instructors who routinely make skinfold measurements have appeared to show reasonable intra-observer reliability, but poor inter-tester reliability (Webster, 2002) highlighting the necessity for a standardised approach to measuring sites, and development of the required skill of the anthropometrist (Wang et al., 2000). Such standardisation upholds ‘best practice’ in terms of demonstrable skill to be imparted during teaching.

Experienced anthropometrists including instructors may be between five and ten times more precise, accurate and quick at measuring a profile as novices in practice. Not only are instructors’ movements ‘automatic’, they appear fluent, and one measurement ‘flows’ into the next, with minimal time gap. By contrast, a novice appears tentative, jerky, and separate movements are separated by pauses. In terms of measuring, there is a stark contrast between novice and instructor. In terms of teaching, the instructor is only simulating measuring, and will demonstrate ‘end-form’ technique, encourage practice, and correct faults. In practice, this may be more difficult than it sounds, as learners identify with different aspects of the skill, or interpret the instruction in different ways. Because students of anthropometry are likely to have different learning styles, an instructor may select a variety of methods to deliver a teaching experience to a group. The aim of this summary is to provide basic theoretical background for skill acquisition in anthropometry and illustrate some methods which may be appropriate for this process.

Skills are tasks which seek to achieve specific goals. They can be closed – predictable or stationary and not variable with other external input, or open – where changing or dynamic environmental conditions influence the requirements. In reality, there is a continuum between open and closed skills, and making anthropometric measurements is represented near the ‘closed skill’ end. However, the variability in plasticity of body tissues, measuring equipment and the physical measuring environment all contribute to variability.

Various theoretical models of acquisition of a practical skill have been proposed, for example the model of Fitts and Posner (1967), which details the awareness phase, practice phase and acquired skill phase of a physical task. The awareness phase involves participants understanding the basic principles and some of the complexity of the task. The practice phase involves developing skill at coordinating the different components. Both these phases are addressed by the techniques mentioned below. The acquired skill phase involves less attention being given to the task, to enable other tasks to be accomplished. In terms of a practical skill, this may involve experienced technicians working on a large measuring project or teachers whose skills are sufficiently subconscious to enable their attention to focus on the learner and the lesson. During effective learning, feedback is fundamentally important, to motivate, to reinforce positive and discourage negative actions. This can be intrinsic – the sensory information produced as a consequence of performing the movement, or extrinsic – additional information provided by peers, an instructor, video or the measurement value itself. The learner can sense how a measurement should feel using intrinsic feedback, while the instructor can control the extrinsic feedback, taking care that the right amount of information is provided in the right way on an individual basis.

How can this theoretical framework be applied in the teaching and learning of anthropometry? Experience from teaching other practical skills can reveal a variety of effective approaches which guide individuals through a journey of practical skill acquisition. A large array of techniques can be applied when introducing beginners to skill learning. Such methods are in use in ski teaching (BASI, 1997), and in a methodological context, there is no compelling reason to suggest that such methods cannot be applied in the development of anthropometric measuring skill.

A sequence of key stages can be depicted in anthropometric measurement, using the example of making a skinfold measurement. Such a sequence is depicted in Figure 1.1 A–F.

Figure 1.1 Stages of a skinfold.

A: Approach the skin with fingers and thumb at 90° to the skin surface
B: Align the finger border with the landmark, grasping enough, but no more than enough to raise a skinfold with parallel sides
C: Apply the calipers 1cm away from the edge of the finger, at approximately mid-fingernail depth
D: Release the caliper spring tension and take the reading after two seconds
E: Depress the trigger and remove the calipers, maintaining the skinfold grasp
F: Release the skinfold

These stages represent a considerable learning challenge to any novice, because so many factors have to be accomplished appropriately and in the correct sequence within only a few seconds. The difficulty of such a challenge is readily exacerbated by failing to clear sufficient space, or to use the anthropometric box to align the relative size of measurer and subject appropriately. Once these have been done, the tuition of the main part of the task still needs to be carefully considered, and can follow several alternative learning pathways.

2 WHOLE-PART-WHOLE

This involves first demonstrating the entire action, and then breaking it down into a series of stages. The sequence is gradually built up into the whole again. This may be a useful approach, because the fluency of an experienced demonstrator can readily disguise the complexity of the skill sequence. Presenting a clear picture of the requirements to students may assist their conceptual understanding, but many will fail to take on board all the steps in the sequence. Therefore, highlighting each stage becomes important, emphasising why each stage is included. Finally, ‘stitching’ the stages together offers a template which embraces the totality of the measurement, with due consideration to each stage. The timing of the ‘part’ section can be as much as 30 seconds, and this time can be reduced as students become more fluent, and eventually become ‘real-time’. Alternating between ‘real-time’ speed and the ‘slow motion’ to identify all the parts is a useful method for some students acquiring detail and speed commensurately.

3 CHAINING

A progressive method is to perform only the beginning stage of a measurement and practice this component before moving on to the next one. This is referred to as ‘chaining’, and represents how a new piece of music may be learned in practice, with one section being mastered before the next is attempted. In terms of a skinfold the sequence may be initiated by approaching the skin surface with finger and thumb at 90° to it (Figure 1.1A). Next the finger and thumb are placed in the correct orientation on the landmark (Figure 1.1B). These steps are mastered completely before proceeding further. Once accomplished, the student proceeds to palpate tissue, raising a fold with parallel sides (Figure 1.1B) and then applies the calipers one centimetre away from the inferior edge of the index finger of the left hand and at mid-fingernail depth (Figure 1.1C). The sequence proceeds adding each stage until complete. Many measurements have as many as 10 or so discrete stages, if approaching and orienting the subject are considered. Once all the stages are in place, the timing can be developed, to become a fluid movement. This approach may be useful for subjects who have little or no experience of making anthropometric measurements.

4 SHAPING

This is an alternative approach, where the skill is acquired in a gross form, and modified in a series of stages. Considerations such as subject position, measurer position, orientation and precise timing can be included, as the measurement is perfected. Unlike the previous two methods, this approach does not substantially alter the total time requirement for one measurement. Rather, the consistency within this ‘real-time’ approach is enhanced as attention to detail increases. Use of digital movie files which can be replayed in a loop, paused or slowed down can enable learning to progress in a more self-directed way, where the individual relates sequences, positions and timing to other key teaching points. This ‘mapping’ of learning outcomes can even take the form of participants making annotations over a movie clip, effectively writing their own storyboard, which can serve as an aide-mémoire to future practice. As students become more fluent, they can compare one another’s measurements with the movie clip of the recommended technique. Students with access to a video camera can practise by making movie clips of measuring which can be later reviewed to underscore the learning process. Shaping is an appropriate technique for subjects with some previous experience of making anthropometric measurements.

5 FEEDBACK AND FAULT CORRECTION

With intrinsic feedback, the perception of ‘how the movement should feel’ can only arise as a consequence of making large numbers of measurements on as many different individuals as possible. In some individuals, landmarks will be difficult to locate, and in others, adipose tissue will adhere to the underlying muscle fascia, making a skinfold very difficult to raise. It is important that students get some exposure to more problematic subjects for measuring if they are to become effective practitioners.

In terms of extrinsic feedback, careful consideration is necessary to inform the process of fault correction. Inappropriate teaching here fosters a dependency on the feedback from the instructor. Common, yet inappropriate is an over-reliance on agreement in scores measured by the instructor and learner. This is particularly destructive in terms of learning with rank novices, who may mistakenly assume close agreement in scores means their technique must have been appropriate. One positive suggestion for teaching skinfolds is to obscure the caliper dial with by a paper cover, until the technique is more consistent. Feedback needs to be delivered in an appropriate way, so maximise the understanding of the learner. In this respect, the ‘you-I-you’ approach can be effective, where the perspective of the learner comes first and last, with the perspective of the instructor in between. For example: ‘You were standing a long way away from the subject; I’m not sure I could get my head perpendicular to the dial from that position; You could ask yourself next time, how does my body need to be oriented to make sure my line of sight ends up being at 90º to the dial?’

Focusing feedback on one aspect at a time may avoid confusing the learner who is slow to embrace the complexity of measuring, and encourages further practice where alternative criteria can be considered next. Consideration needs to be given to how long to practise one measurement, before discomfort of the subject or boredom of the learner can undermine the learning process. One solution is to require subjects to perform a series of three or four measurements, thereby acquiring the skills of moving between the individual measurements easily and quickly. (This can enable measurements to be made with greater confidence and releases more time for landmarking or other measurements.) Thus, practice can focus on different aspects in turn, such as body position, hand position, caliper location, timing etc. Above all, it is important for the instructor to remain positive, to be specific, and to keep comments concise and relevant.

6 MAXIMUM GROUP ACTIVITY

Attention needs to be paid to the relative independence given to learners, so they can develop skills without becoming reliant on an instructor’s intervention. Once the basic skill has been demonstrated, maximum practice is necessary to provide practical experience which complements the theoretical underpinning. This is easiest in anthropometry in a group of three individuals, each taking turns to be measurer, recorder and subject, completing a series of measurements. Groups can then pursue different learning pathways as outlined above. In addition, self-rating or peer-rating can occur with respect to location, orientation, timing, body position etc. for each measurement. As with most skills, the role of the instructor alters as novices gain experience. Responsibility for progression through the learning process can be steadily transferred from the instructor to the student. This will occur at different rates in different individuals, and again, a flexible approach is important. For instance self-directed learning assigned to one group, enables a more labour-intensive fault correction by the instructor in another.

7 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDENTS OF DIFFERENT LEARNING STYLES

While some students will be self-motivated and confident, others are likely to be shy and reticent. In order to deliver effective teaching to a group containing both, a flexible approach is essential. While independent learners can proceed with limited instructions, expectant or dependant learners wait for opportunities to be developed for them. In any class, both categories are likely to be present, and vigilance early in the instructional session with regard to who requires more didactic teaching is prudent. Failure to do this may mean that the more reticent students accomplish very little during a lesson. However one pitfall of this approach is that the independent learners may be proceeding rapidly, but reinforcing errors which have gone undetected. Solutions to these types of teaching challenge can involve ‘optin’ teaching clinics for methods using only part of the class. Self-paced learning may make use of prepared video clips of teaching material which can be made available in a separate area. Additionally, live video filming of measurements can be performed, and are used widely in sports coaching with very positive results. Students can elect to film or be filmed, and review the video feedback, perhaps comparing against one another, or some pre-prepared material.

In larger classes, teaching ratios may present an additional challenge to learning. However, one valuable contribution to knowledge about effective teaching was recently trialled involving peer-mediated instruction which reinforces attention to detail, which can specifically be ...

Índice

• Cover Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Preface
• Introduction
• Chapter One: Pedagogic Approaches to Teaching Anthropometry
• Chapter Two: Influence of Maturation on Morphology, Food Ingestion and Motor Performance Variability of Lisbon Children Aged Between 7 to 8 Years
• Chapter Three: Virtual Anthropometry
• Chapter Four: A Comparison of the Accuracy of the Vitus Smart® and Hamamatsu Body Line® 3D Whole-Body Scanners
• Chapter Five: An Anthropometric Method of Measuring Standing Posture with 3D Analysis
• Chapter Six: Revising Sizing: Modifying Clothing Templates to Match the 3D Shape of Real Women
• Chapter Seven: The Standards Australia Sizing System: Quantifying the Mismatch
• Chapter Eight: Body Composition in Female Sports Participants with Particular Reference to Bone Density
• Chapter Nine: Body Composition Changes in Professional Soccer Players in the Off-Season
• Chapter Ten: The Relationship Between Strength, Power, Flexibility, Anthropometry and Technique and 2000 m and 5000 m Rowing Ergometer Performance
• Chapter Eleven: Anthropometric and Physiological Characteristics of Elite Female Water Polo Players
• Chapter Twelve: Kinanthropometric Differences Between Playing Levels and Position in Rugby Union
• Chapter Thirteen: Direct-Depth Measurement of Subcutaneous Adipose Tissue
• Chapter Fourteen: The Role of Physical Activity in the Prevention and Treatment of Obesity as an Inflammatory Condition: Review Article
• Chapter Fifteen: Towards a Generalised Anthropometric Language
• Chapter Sixteen: Physique Relationships in Body Dissatisfaction
• Chapter Seventeen: Proportionality and Sexual Dimorphism in Elite South African Crawl Stroke Swimmers