Family in the Bible

Exploring Customs, Culture, and Context

Hess, Richard S., Carroll R., M. Daniel

• Editorial: Baker Academic
• Año: 2003
• ISBN:
  9781441206695
• Categoría: Teologia e religione
• Categoría: Studi biblici

What does the Bible say about the importance of the family? How can we apply these ancient perspectives to modern Christian life? The essays gathered in this volume provide reflections from leading biblical scholars.
The authors focus on reading the Scriptures from the perspective of the authors in ancient Israelite society and the surrounding cultures. They find there an overarching sense of the central role the family played in the larger social structure. However different our contemporary culture might be, these reflections can form the basis of an evangelical vision of the family informed by a biblical worldview.

1

Family in the Pentateuch

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GORDON J. WENHAM

“God settles the solitary in a home” (Ps. 68:6) expresses the Old Testament’s positive view of community life. Genesis 2:18 puts it differently: “It is not good that the man should be alone” (NRSV). It then goes on to tell of God creating Eve for Adam to cure his loneliness. The stories of Genesis with their focus on family life are some of the best known in the Bible. Scholars debate the historicity of these tales, but the average Bible reader is simply impressed by their vividness and their faithful depiction of family life in so many situations that we can still identify with.

But in their very familiarity lurks danger. We in the West live in a world that is culturally quite different from theirs, and, unwittingly, as we read these stories to ourselves or retell them to our children, we may read into them customs and a worldview that are quite different from theirs. So, though we think that we may be understanding them, we are in fact profoundly misinterpreting them.

Some years ago a book by Walter Trobisch on marriage was published, entitled I Married You.[1] It contained much practical advice for young people intending to marry and was based on biblical principles and long experience of life in England and in Nigeria. Quite rightly, the author discussed one of the key texts on marriage in the Bible, Gen. 2:24: “Therefore a man shall leave his father and mother and hold fast to his wife, and they shall become one flesh.” Trobisch went on to relate how he used to expound this text to the Nigerians, telling them that it justifies the Western practice of newly wed couples setting up home on their own, well out of range of parental interference. In Nigeria, however, it was customary for the newlyweds to live in or near the home of the husband’s family. This, declared Trobisch, was most undesirable for the new couple’s relationship and was condemned by this text from Genesis.

Unfortunately for his Nigerian listeners, Trobisch could not have been more wrong, for the practice in Old Testament times was much closer to Nigerian than to Western practice. The Israelites practiced patrilocal marriage: the man stayed near his parents, for in due time he would inherit their land, and the bride left her family to join her husband’s extended family. So why does Genesis speak of the man leaving his parents and holding fast to his wife? Would it not be more accurate to say, “Therefore a woman leaves her parents and holds fast to her husband”?

What Trobisch, and doubtless many other Western readers, failed to grasp about Gen. 2:24 was that “leave” was not meant so much literally as emotionally. In traditional societies, the most important social obligation is to one’s parents. “Honor your father and mother” is the first of the commands in the Decalogue regarding obligations to other people. But Genesis is saying that when a man marries, his order of responsibilities changes: though his parents’ needs are still important, his wife’s needs are even more important. Responsibility for her welfare now must take priority even over care for his parents.

This profound insight about marriage is, of course, expounded even more clearly by Paul in Eph. 5, where he compares a man’s love for his wife with Christ’s love for the church. Unfortunately, our missionary to Nigeria had missed this point and tried to impose Western marriage patterns in a traditional culture. But that is a minor point; my major concern is that we are all liable to misinterpret the Old Testament stories about family life if we read them as modern Westerners rather than as Easterners of the second millennium B.C.E. We must shed our modern preconceptions and seek to recover the assumptions and outlook of the ancient world. This is no easy task, and even the most learned scholar would admit to being able to do it only imperfectly. However hard we try to escape our modern environment and understand the past from its own perspectives, we are limited in what we can achieve.

However, we can reduce the scale of our potential misunderstanding if we become more historically and sociologically self-conscious—that is, if we recognize the general difference between our society and theirs. We must acknowledge where we are coming from and where they were coming from. We must try to understand some of the fundamental structures of their society before we read the family stories contained in Genesis, for it is within those structures that they were heard in biblical times. For example, people knew what normally happened when someone married, had a child, or died in Israel, so when they heard a story about what one of their ancestors did in those circumstances, they would automatically compare the customs they knew with what the patriarchs did. We should try to do the same.

Furthermore, we need to recognize that not everything described in the narratives was understood to be normative. Believing readers of the Old Testament, whether Christian or Jewish, have always believed that “whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction” (Rom. 15:4 NRSV). But this is not to say that everything the patriarchs did in Genesis is supposed to be imitated. Sometimes they made big mistakes, which are recorded to encourage later readers to learn from them. But once again we need to be cautious lest we allow our instincts about what is right or wrong to be imposed on the text rather than let the biblical writers instruct us. We need to read the texts sensitively to discover what they are saying about the events described, not simply to let our gut reactions determine their significance for us.

In the rest of this essay I do five things. First, I sketch some of the biggest differences between biblical society and our own in the sphere of family life. Second, I outline some of the customs and practices associated with family that are alluded to in the Old Testament. Third, I look at the problem of disentangling historical descriptions of family life contained in Genesis from the author’s ethical evaluation of these activities: how do we know when he is applauding the acts he describes and when he is criticizing them? Fourth, after discussing the ethics of the implied author, I ask what message about family life emerges from the stories of Genesis. Fifth, I ask what attitude we should take toward the structures of family life disclosed in the Bible: how far should Bible-believing Christians aim to resurrect institutions of biblical times, such as arranged marriages and patriarchy? Are these structures normative, paradigmatic, or illustrative?

Differences between Ancient Israelite and Modern Society

We begin with some broad-brush distinctions between the days of Genesis and our own. Obviously, they were technologically quite different from the developed Western world. No cell phones, television, electricity, motor vehicles, aircraft, hospitals, supermarkets, and so on. But more important from the point of view of this essay is their different view of the relationship between the individual and society. We live in a society in which everyone is supposed to be equal, independent, and free to choose his or her own way of life. Self-fulfillment and self-satisfaction are the great goals of our consumerist society.[2] Society is pictured as a collection of free-floating individuals, like molecules in a gas jar, impacting each other from time to time but with no permanent attachments to any other. Democracy, the will of the majority expressed through ballot box or opinion poll, determines what is right or wrong.

Biblical assumptions about society and the individual are quite different. You were who you were because of the family you were born into. Your family determined your career (e.g., farmer, priest, king), your land holding, where you lived, and where you died. Hence your genealogy was all-important and enormously interesting, though for us genealogies seem to be the most boring parts of Scripture. You saw yourself not as a free-floating individual, but as part of a father’s house, a clan, a tribe, a people. Israel, the nation, was one giant firm or company in which every member had a specific place and had a particular role to play. Every Israelite saw himself or herself as a member of a firm or team, or, more precisely, a variety of teams. The most significant team was your immediate extended family, but it in turn belonged to the larger teams such as the clan and the tribe. The individual’s welfare depended on the success of the team to which he or she belonged. If a family’s crops failed, its members might find themselves sold into slavery and their land mortgaged until the year of Jubilee. Thus, every individual saw his or her responsibility primarily to family or clan or tribe, not to self. And whereas modern individuals choose to work for a particular company or play in a particular team, in ancient Israel no male had much choice. You were born into a specific family in a particular place, and that determined your life thereafter.[3] Finally, democracy would have had little place in ancient thought. As far as day-to-day decisions were concerned, nearly everyone was answerable to someone higher up in the social structure, and at the top the king was answerable to God.

Patriarchal Family Life

These principles can be illustrated from the processes of family decision-making. Archaeologists have discovered that the earliest Israelite settlements consisted of small hamlets, with 50 to 150 people dwelling on an acre or two. The houses in such villages had three or four rooms on the ground floor, probably used for agricultural purposes such as storing grain or housing animals, and other rooms on the second floor presumably for human habitation. The houses themselves were built in groups of two or three around a common courtyard. Archaeologists surmise that a nuclear family lived in each house and that the houses sharing a common courtyard represented other nuclear families in the extended family, called the “father’s house” in Hebrew.[4]

Unfortunately, archaeological evidence does not take us back any earlier than the judges period in Israel, but it is not difficult to imagine that the Israelites in Goshen in Egypt arranged themselves similarly. It is also possible that the patriarchs arranged their tents in this fashion. One certainly gets the impression from Genesis that Jacob lived near Laban, as he worked his fourteen years to earn the hand of Rachel and of Leah. When Jacob’s sons were going to and fro between Canaan and Egypt, it is evident that the sons’ wives and children were living close to grandfather Jacob. And although Jacob was too elderly to go down to Egypt to fetch grain, he had the ultimate authority over his sons: they went to buy grain only when he consented (Gen. 42:1–2; 43:1–2). Normally, when a man married, it was his wife who moved and became part of her husband’s family, but Jacob continued living with his uncle and father-in-law, Laban. This meant that Jacob had to submit to Laban’s demand that he stay and work for him. It was only by tricking Laban that Jacob eventually escaped his control (see Gen. 31). Within the nuclear family, children were expected to obey their parents, and wives were subject to their husbands. This is illustrated by the laws on vows in Num. 30. If a man makes a vow, he must carry it out. However, if a woman makes a vow, her father (if she is a minor) or her husband (if she is married) may veto the vow; in that case, she is no longer obliged to fulfill it.

But this is not to say that women did not have a significant say in family decision-making processes. Numbers 30 indicates that they could initiate vows themselves. Meyers points out that women were very important workers in the household and probably were responsible for many of the skilled tasks in processing farm products, such as spinning, weaving, grinding grain, and cooking, as well as bearing and training children. This would have given them considerable authority within the household.[5] Certainly the “excellent wife” of Prov. 31 and Rebekah in Genesis are portrayed as women with great energy and initiative, dedicated to the well-being of their households.

Marriage customs also illustrate the authority structures within Israelite families. Isaac and Jacob found their wives in very different ways. In the case of Isaac and Rebekah, neither saw the other before the match was agreed upon. Abraham’s servant went to the city of Nahor and met Rebekah by the well. He negotiated marriage terms with her father and brother, and she consented to leave promptly. That this totally arranged marriage was divinely organized is heavily underlined by the participants in the story and by the narrator (e.g., Gen. 24:50–51). On the other hand, Jacob and Esau take the initiative themselves. Isaac and Rebekah did not like Esau’s choice, so they sent Jacob to find a wife from their relatives, which he did. But because he had no parental backup to manage his wedding arrangements, he was badly cheated by his father-in-law. It seems likely that the experiences of Isaac and Jacob were extreme cases of total parental control, on the one hand, and no control at all, on the other. Perhaps Samson’s case was more typical: he noticed a girl whom he fancied and told his father and mother, “Get her for me as my wife” (Judg. 14:2 NRSV).

Though the case of Jacob and Rachel shows that it was possible to find a wife without parental involvement, it was more difficult to proceed to betrothal, for this involved a large capital transfer from the man’s family to the woman’s family. The marriage payment, or bride price (mōhar), typically was equivalent to several years’ wages.[6] Since he could not e-mail home for credit, Jacob had to work for his father-in-law for seven years before he could marry Rachel. When the wedding came, the couple still were dependent on their parents, first to provide the seven-day-long wedding feast (Gen. 29:22–29; cf. Judg. 14:12) and for payment of the do...

Índice

• Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• List of Contributors
• Editors’ Preface
• List of Abbreviations
• Part 1: Family in the Old Testament
• Part 2: Family in the New Testament
• Index of Scripture and Other Ancient Writings
• Index of Modern Authors
• Notes