This chapter presents the individual, organizational, and societal issues surrounding autism in the workplace. The term Generation A is introduced to refer to the 1.5 million individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD ) who will reach adulthood in the next decade. These individuals will be entering the workplace in unprecedented numbers. This book is about the need to find employment for these individuals and to understand the factors that will lead to positive work and career experiences for individuals with ASD.
According to Autism Speaks (2019), “Autism, or Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), refer to a broad range of conditions characterized by challenges with social skills, repetitive behaviors, speech and nonverbal communication.” The World Health Organization (2013) describes ASD as “neurodevelopmental impairments in communication and social interaction and unusual ways of perceiving and processing information” (p. 7). As such, individuals with ASD often have difficulty in understanding the thoughts, intentions, and emotions of others (Bruggink, Huisman, Vuijk, Kraaij, & Garnefski, 2016). Some individuals with ASD may have difficulty regulating their own emotions. These challenges may create transition and employment issues for young adults with ASD (Samson, Huber, & Gross, 2012) as they enter the workplace, and potentially throughout their lives as their careers unfold.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, (2018), 1 in 59 children are on the autism spectrum, and the presence of ASD is four to five times more common in boys (1 in 38) than in girls (1 in 152). Autism Speaks (2019) estimates that there are 3.5 million people with ASD in the United States. The number of people affected by ASD is estimated to be in the tens of millions worldwide. Although it is difficult to get exact numbers, it is estimated that 1% of the world population has autism (CDC, 2018; Malcolm-Smith, Hoogenhout, Ing, De Vries, & Thomas, 2013; Schendel et al., 2013; Wallace et al., 2012). Each year the United Nations hosts World Autism Awareness Day. The theme in 2015 was Employment: The Autism Advantage (http://webtv.un.org/watch/2015-world-autism-awareness-day-employment-the-autism-advantage/4149043523001). The theme highlighted the potential for persons with autism to make significant contributions in the workplace, given their unique individual strengths. It also noted widespread discrimination in the workplace against people with autism and the limited vocational training and job opportunities available for those with autism.
Further, over the next decade, close to half a million people with ASD will reach adulthood (CDC, 2016). These numbers are staggering and suggest the need to examine the long-term employment, career, and life outcomes for this generational cohort. While the majority of individuals entering the workplace in the next decade will be members of Generation Z, we have chosen the term Generation A to represent people with ASD who will reach adulthood and who will be poised to enter the workplace in the next decade.
This book addresses the need to find employment for these individuals as studies of young adults with ASD have found that they have much higher rates of unemployment than the general population (Baldwin, Costley, & Warren, 2014; Krieger, Kinebanian, Prodinger, & Heigl, 2012; Nord, Stancliffe, Nye-Legerman, & Hewitt, 2016; Richards, 2012; Roux et al., 2013; Scott, Falkmer, Girdler, & Falkmer, 2015; Shattuck et al., 2011). The most recent unemployment statistics for adults with ASD reveal that 85% are unemployed and that 69% of them want to work (National Autistic Society, 2016). Research has shown that many individuals with ASD have never been members of the labor force (Cidav, Marcus, & Mandell, 2012). Research suggests that 35% of young adults with autism have never held a job, been members of the labor force, nor attended educational programs after high school (Cidav et al., 2012; Shattuck et al., 2012). A study of 200 transition-age young adults with ASD found that 81% were unemployed (Gerhardt & Lainer, 2011). A small study of young adults with ASD and intelligence quotients (IQs) above 50 found that only 11.76% were employed (Howlin, Goode, Hutton, & Rutter, 2004). Other studies have found that approximately half of the young adults with ASD have worked for pay after high school (Roux et al., 2013). The same study also found that the odds of ever having a paid job were higher for those who were older, who were from higher-income households, or who had better conversational or functional skills (Roux et al., 2013).
There are individual, organizational, and societal costs when individuals with ASD are unemployed. These include the financial, social, and psychological costs of unemployment for individuals with ASD, their family, and caregivers. There are lost productivity costs for organizations facing labor and skills shortages that might be avoided by employing individuals with ASD. Finally, there are societal costs associated with supporting individuals with ASD who are unable to find and maintain employment.
As Generation A begins to move into the workforce, there is the potential for numerous benefits to individuals, organizations, and society. Employment has the potential to result in more positive life outcomes for both individuals with ASD and their families and caregivers. Sustained employment and the ability to live independently have the potential to reduce the financial toll on society of caring for individuals with ASD. The movement of Generation A into the workplace offers numerous benefits for the organizations that employ them. In addition to filling the demand for skilled workers, there are financial and reputation benefits that may accrue for organizations that hire individuals with ASD. These include tax incentives provided by the federal government and other economic advantages, as well as positive perceptions of the organization by applicants and others within the community.
History of Autism and Terminology
The term autistic was first used in 1912 by Eugen Bleuler “to describe social withdrawal in schizophrenic adults” (Martin, 2012, p. 161). In 1943 Leo Kanner defined autism as a unique disorder, using the term “early infantile autism.” Kanner also identified “the autism spectrum, or the concept that autism varied significantly between and within diagnosed individuals” (Martin, 2012, p. 161). Noting that some individuals with autism had better socialization and communication skills than others, Hans Asperger identified childhood “autistic psychopathy” in 1944. Since 1981, the term Asperger’s syndrome has been used to describe high-functioning individuals with autism. ASD in the past referred to a group of diagnoses including autism, Asperger’s syndrome, childhood disintegrative disorder, Rett syndrome, and pervasive development disorder not otherwise specified (PDD NOS). Autism is defined as reduced functionality in two of the three domains of social interaction, communication, and repetitive behaviors. There are substantial differences among individuals within each of these diagnoses. Individuals with Asperger’s typically develop early language skills and cognitive abilities. In 2013 the Diagnostics and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) combined all of the above diagnoses into one diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Asperger’s is considered to be one end of the autism spectrum and not a separate diagnosis.
Research on the causes of autism remains inconclusive and somewhat controversial. One of the earliest explanations for autism was Bruno Bettelheim’s “refrigerator mother” theory, which was prevalent in the United States during the 1950s and 1960s. Bettelheim incorrectly posited that autism was caused by having an unloving, cold, and distant mother. He considered autism to be a psychological issue, not a medical issue (Martin, 2012).
This book does not address the causes of autism or the medical issues associated with autism. Research suggests that there are multiple causes of autism. These include the role of genetic, neurological, and environmental factors. Recognizing the neurological basis for autism has important implications for the types of services and treatments that are paid for by insurance companies. In addition to psychological services, these services may include neurological imaging exams, applied behavior analysis (ABA), other behavioral therapies, and occupational, physical, and social skills therapy. “It is now generally understood in the scientif...