New Women in Colonial Korea

A Sourcebook

Hyaeweol Choi

• Éditeur: Routledge
• Année: 2012
• ISBN:
  9781136297496
• Édition: 1
• Sujet: Social Sciences
• Sous-sujet: Ethnic Studies

This book provides the first English translation of some of the central archival material concerning the development of New Woman (sin y?s?ng) in Korea during the late nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century. It includes selected writings of both women and men who put forward their views on some of the key issues of new womanhood, including gender equality, chastity, divorce, education, fashion, hygiene, birth control, and the women's movement. The authors whose essays are included express a range of attitudes about the new gender ethics and practices that were deeply influenced by the incessant flow of new and modern knowledge, habits and consumer products from metropolitan Japan and the West. Emphasizing the global nature of the phenomenon of the New Woman and Modern Girl, this sourcebook provides key references to a dynamic and multifarious history of modern Korean women, whose ideals and life experiences were formed at the intersection of Western modernity, Korean nationalism, Japanese colonialism and resilient patriarchy.

1 The Woman Question

Editor’s Introduction

Beginning in the late nineteenth century, the “woman question” was actively incorporated into the discourse of “civilization and enlightenment” (munmyŏng kaehwa), serving as a yardstick for evaluating the level of “civilization” or “barbarity.” In the social-Darwinian discourse of civilization and enlightenment, the “backwardness” of Korean women had to be remedied in order to move forward along the universal, linear path of historical progress. Women were expected to come out of the inner chambers, to become educated, to be well versed in domestic and world affairs, and to play a role in building an independent nation-state. The newly emerging print media in the form of news-papers and magazines played a significant role in revisiting old gender ideology and advocating new gender ethics.

This chapter is comprised of translations of some representative editorials and newspaper articles on the “woman question.” In an editorial from April 21, 1896, Tongnip sinmun (The Independent) calls the harsh treatment of women by men in Korea “barbaric,” offering a sharp critique of the Confucian patriarchal social arrangements that had effectively deprived women of their basic rights and human dignity (Source 1). It singles out oppressive customs, including concubinage, the ban on remarriage for women, and the “inside– outside rule” (naeoebŏp), which were designed to control women’s sexuality and ensure men’s dominance over women’s lives. In doing so, the new gender discourse stresses the idea of “equal” treatment under the universal law and the appeal to “rationality” and “moral righteousness.” The particular editorial translated here even suggests that women are far superior to men in terms of their moral behavior and thus would be a good model for decadent, depraved men to emulate. Korea’s discourse on New Womanhood brings to the fore the inner moral and ethical strength of women, which parallels the Victorian gender ideology in which women were claimed to have superior morality and spirituality (Baker 1991; Deuchler 2003).

Educating women was the single most important agenda in the “woman question,” but it was effectively linked to other relevant issues, such as equal rights and women’s contribution to society. Although the initial advocacy of women’s education was exclusively led by male intellectuals, “A Circular for the Establishment of a Girls’ School” (Yŏhakkyo sŏlsi t’ongmun), published in 1898, opened up a new beginning in that it is the first public statement demanding gender equality and equal education for women that was initiated by women (Source 2). In this piece announcing the plan to establish the Sunsŏng Girls’ School, the organizers argue that men and women are equal, and yet the rules and customs that had been instituted by men have reduced women to beings of lower status. Urging Koreans to emulate the examples of the “advanced, civilized” societies that provide equal education for women and men, the message pleads with women to wake up and see the rapidly changing world, and argues that, in order to have an equal share and receive due respect, women should be educated.

Starting with Kajŏng chapchi (Home Journal) and Yŏja chinam (Guide for Women), founded in 1906 and 1908, respectively, the publication of women’s magazines joined other print media in educating women and the general public (Ewha yŏja taehakkyo han’guk yŏsŏng yŏn’guso 1981: 143–144). The way Kajŏng chapchi was founded is noteworthy, as it was initiated by a Christian group at Sangdong Church whose Youth Association (Sangdong ch’ŏngnyŏnhoe) had opened up a new path to mass education since its establishment in 1904. Originally intended to distribute the gospel to Koreans, the Sangdong Youth Association expanded its activities, offering military training and frequently holding debates with renowned intellectuals to enhance nationalist consciousness in the younger generation. Later, some members of the Sangdong Youth Association decided to found a woman’s magazine in order to educate women, especially those who were housewives or had not had an opportunity to attend school. The overall tone in these magazines is largely in line with the spirit of the Patriotic Enlightenment movements (1905–1910) in the sense that women’s “new” roles are configured within the context of building a modern nation-state. A central theme was the “new” role of wife and mother. Introducing inspiring stories from both the East and the West, these magazines tried to instill new models of the “good wife” and the “wise mother or brave mother” (Ewha yŏja taehakkyo han’guk yŏsŏng yŏn’guso 1981: 160–162, 181–182).¹ To help Korean women emulate this model of the good wife and wise mother in an increasingly competitive world, these magazines instruct readers on a wide range of new knowledge and information about how to govern the family with wisdom, hygiene, and practical knowledge. The sections on hygiene especially introduce “scientific” advice, including how to carry babies, how to preserve fish, how to discern good water from bad water, how to remove moisture in the cupboard, how to use the shell of an egg, or how to ensure a sound body and prevent illness (Ewha yŏja taehakkyo han’guk yŏsŏng yŏn’guso 1981: 165–167).

In addition to women’s magazines, Protestant Christian periodicals published in Korea, such as Sinhak wŏlbo (Monthly Magazine on Christian Theology, founded in 1900) and Kŭrisdo sinmun (The Christian News, founded in 1897), also contributed to the recasting of gender norms. These Christian magazines naturally centered on theological issues but also dealt with social and cultural issues, including women’s lives in Korea. The essay by Mun Kyŏngho, an evangelist, takes up the custom of the “inside–outside rule” (naeoebŏp), which had imprisoned women in the inner quarters (Source 3). He introduces the Christian idea that God created man and woman equal as the basis for his argument that, “we Christian men will love and protect our wives, chosen for us by God, and we will give them freedom so that they can go anywhere that they wish.” Although published in a non-Christian magazine, An Ch’ŏngang’s essay also invokes the idea that God (hananim) made women and men equal as the basis for his sharp critique on “evil” customs, represented in practices such as the concubine system, son preference, the denial of education to women, and the general disrespect shown for women by men and society (Source 4). Scrutinizing men’s habitual taking of numerous concubines, An puts forward the idea of monogamy as the new, just marital system in which the woman is not treated as an object for men’s sexual gratification, and sons and daughters are treated equally.

Yi Kangja’s article discusses women’s freedom (chayu) as a critical condition for women to contribute to the state (kukka) (Source 5). Locating a new role for women in the matters of the mandate of the state, the author claims freedom for women as members (inmin) of the state in order for them to contribute to making it strong and prosperous. Yi’s emphasis on women’s rightful participation in economic matters is noteworthy because she sees it as a way to eliminate the old custom that confined women to the inner quarters and, more importantly, as a way to bring women into the public realm, where they can make an economic contribution to the family and state.

The last essay in this chapter was written by a thirteen-year-old girl student at an elementary school, Yanggyu ŭisuk (Source 6). She attributes the unequal status between men and women to unequal education over many centuries. The disparities, she argues, are not just a matter of inequality between men and women but a matter of unbalanced power relations between Korea as a weak country and other, stronger nations. Celebrating the establishment of a girls’ school and a women’s monthly magazine as a sign of hope for the future, the author identifies the critical importance of women’s education and enlightenment for a stronger and more advanced Korean nation (Yi 1908).

1 An Editorial from the Independent

[“Nonsŏl,” Tongnip sinmun April 21, 1896]

The most pitiful being in this world is the Korean woman. Today we address the Korean public on behalf of these unfortunate women. Woman’s status is by no means lower than man’s, but he debases her. When he is not civilized, he does not think with rationality or humanity; instead he uses his physical power to suppress woman. Is this any different from barbarity? What distinguishes a human (saram) from a barbarian (yaman) is that the former behaves in accordance with respect, etiquette, and loyalty. If you observe Korean men and see the way they treat their wives, you notice they do not show any affection, loyalty, or courtesy toward them. A man treats his wife like some despicable creature, without the slightest trace of affection. He follows traditions in which he acts in forceful and authoritative ways that excessively oppress his wife. Given such behavior, how can we not feel pity for women and anger toward men? A truly great man (changbu) would offer relief from an existence of frailty and misery and would look down on a man who exercised such brutal excesses of power and arrogance. Women are weaker than men; therefore, it is natural and proper for a great man to show concern and care for women. Simply because woman is more delicate, she has been deprived of her rights to freedom, treated like a criminal in prison. It is simply deplorable and disgusting to think about the grave sin man has committed against woman.

In terms of behavior, woman is far superior to man. First of all, men engage in obscene behaviors far more frequently than women do, such as when they take concubines. Doesn’t this show us that women are more high-minded and pure of character? These unreasonable men have crafted customs that allow them to shamelessly indulge their sexual appetites, even after marriage, yet these same men consider any similar behavior on the part of women to be ruinous. How could there be such unfair treatment? It would be understandable and legitimate for a man who conducts himself well and remains chaste to kick his wife out of the house and let her suffer the legal consequences if she were behaving sinfully; however, if he himself misbehaves, he should have no right to condemn his wife. It is only fair that men who engage in obscenity and concubinage should be punished just as any woman would be for similar indiscretions.

The vulgarity that clutters men’s minds does not allow them to trust their wives, so they have forced women to stay inside the house and made the “inside–outside rule” (naeoe hanŭn pŏp). How outrageous it is that men have confined women to the house like criminals, forced them to labor like servants, and treated them no better than they would treat an animal. Men have created laws that allow a man to remarry after the death of his wife. Yet, if a woman remarries after the death of her husband, she is considered vulgar. What kind of system is this? It should be just as acceptable for a young woman who has become widowed to remarry as it is for a man.

Once women become better educated and obtain a fuller range of knowledge, they will recognize that women’s rights are equal to men’s and develop strategies to avoid the unreasonable controls that men have put on them. Therefore, we urge women to make great efforts in learning so that they become nobler than men and have great knowledge. In doing so, we hope women will gain their rights and educate ignorant, unjust men.

2 A Circular for the Establishment of a Girls’ School [Excerpt]

[“Yŏhakkyo Sŏlsi T’ongmun,” Tongnip Sinmun September 9, 1898]

Successive reigns over the course of 500 years have been peaceful and stable. Since our king ascended to his reign, our country has been thriving, thanks to his magnanimous virtue. Now he is the Great Emperor and governs the politics of civilization and enlightenment, overseeing a wide range of political and administrative systems. Thus we 20 million people should faithfully embrace the will of the Emperor by abandoning indolent old customs and emulating new ways of enlightenment. In doing so, each individual can improve day after day. This is evident even to young children.

And yet a question remains: how can we women always hang on to old customs like deaf and blind idiots? Who knows? Is there any difference between men and women in their bodies and senses? If not, why is it that women allow themselves to sit idly by to be fed by what men have earned? How can women allow themselves to remain confined in the deep inner quarters, restrained by others for their entire lives?

If we look to countries that were civilized before ours, we see that men and women have equal rights. From a young age, women attend school, attain various levels of learning, and expand their perspectives. When they reach adulthood and get married, they coexist with their husbands for the rest of their lives, never suffering from suppression. Rather, they are highly respected. The reason why women in those countries are not oppressed but esteemed by their husbands is because they learn as much as men and have equal rights. Isn’t this beautiful?

Alas, reflecting on the past, [Korean] men tried to oppress women in the name of the so-called classics that teach women not to talk about the outside world, to dedicate themselves only to making food and drink. Why should women allow themselves to be removed from life and kept ignorant of world affairs by men, when there is no difference in the bodies of men and women? It is time for us to eradicate old customs and strive for enlightenment and progress.

We need to do what has been done in other countries: establish a girls’ school where we can send our daughters so that they acquire the knowledge and proper behavior that would bring them respect and equality. Now we plan to establish a girls’ school for this purpose. We sincerely hope that many respected members of the nation will enthusiastically support our endeavor by signing their names as members.

Respectfully submitted,

Yi Sosa and Kim Sosa²

3 Mmun Kyŏngho: The Custom of the Inside–Outside Rule

[“Naeoe Hanŭn P’ungsok,” Sinhak Wŏlbo 3, no. 7 (1903): 187–190]

Regardless of the level of civilization or the size of their territories, all nations have their own customs, some of which are good and others bad. In the next hundred years, many countries on earth will engage in reforming their customs, making good customs better, and eliminating bad ones, so that they can save people from ignorance. It would be impossible to list all the customs of all nations, but let us take as evidence of the movement toward civilization the examples of the countries that have abolished evil customs and joined the league of advanced countries. [Among the old harmful customs, one can cite the following:] Intending to make their babies beautiful, people in the United States press the head of a new baby with their rough hands so that its occiput will be round [instead of being flat]. Black people in Africa have piercings in their ears, noses, and lips, and they go around naked without feeling any shame. People in India burn widows and drown babies in the river. The Japanese put permanent tattoos of dragons, black lions, and other ferocious animals over their entire bodies. Russians grow beards and mustaches because they believed they cannot go to heaven without wearing them. In China, in order to confine women to the inner chambers, men have the feet of the women bound from childhood. As a result, women need to use canes in order to go anywhere. However, from last year, the Chinese decided to abandon this awful custom, and these other countries have been reforming their traditional practices.

But, in our own country, we have not even begun to change the custom of the “inside–outside rule” (naeoebŏp). Treated like material objects, women in Korea have been confined to the inner chambers, prevented from going anywhere. Men have their women make clothes, prepare food, and do all kinds of odd jobs as if they were slaves. And if a wife does not prepare food or clothing in a timely manner, her husband harshly criticizes her. While men enjoy drinking and eating fine food, they do not even consider sharing these pleasures with their wives. While they go on picnics to scenic places, they prohibit their wives from moving even one step outside the house. While men would never consider criticizing a fellow man for destroying his family through profligacy, gambling, and drinking, they cannot forgive the slightest mistake made by their wives and beat them half to death or expel them from the house. They never let their wives know what they are doing. As a result of the treatment they receive from their husbands, many women commit suicide by drowning themselves or hanging themselves. Some run away or take opium or swallow poison. Even a slave that costs hundreds of nyang [old Korean currency] and would be willing to work to death could not endure a harsher life than this. Korean wives are the most miserable of the miserable. Alas, how sad it is!

When God created man and woman, he planned for them to live in perfect harmony and love each other as equals. So how could Korean women not have any rights? There is no reason other than ignorance. It is reported that the population of our country is now twenty million, and women, fully half of the population, have been oppressed and treated like prisoners by their husbands. They have been confined to the inner chambers and have never had a chance to see the outside world if they so desired. This is a truly lamentable situation. Once, when I visited a prison on an evangelical mission, I saw a man who had been caught during a riot and put in jail a few years earlier. Many other prisoners had been granted leniency at major celebratory events for the nation, but, since this man was a widower and an easy mark, he was never released. Instead, he was kept on in the jail to do all kinds of odds and ends with a meager wage. He was never...