Lunyu
The Analects
Yu èŻ in the term lunyu is relatively simple. It means discussion or conversation, which is different from yan èš, straightforward talking. Lun èźș is more complicated. According to a preface attributed to HUANG Kan, there were three main lines of interpretation of the word lun in lunyu. The first approach reads it from its pronunciation, so they either read it as lĂșn 䌊, meaning order or reason, or as lĂșn çș¶, fabric of a society, or as lĂșn èœź, wheel, which implies all-around completeness that is able to generate infinite motion and change. The second approach reads it according to the meaning of lĂčn èźș, discussion: âThat is to say that this book came from the disciples, so they must have held careful discussions to reach general agreements before they wrote anything down. That which was written down must have been discussed; that is why it is called lĂčn.â The third approach takes the difference between lĂșn and lĂčn to be the result of southern and northern dialects, but since the details of the difference in pronunciation seemed unclear, this view could not be substantiated. Huang explains that the standard way of writing it as lĂčn èźș, discussion, but pronouncing it as lĂșn 䌊 is meant to synthesize the first two approaches:
Taking the written word as lĂčn èźș is to indicate clearly that this book did not come from one person. Its subtle implications are deep and far-reaching, which cannot be fully expressed without having been discussed. Taking the pronunciation as lĂșn 䌊 is to indicate clearly that the book contains profound reasons, which can serve as the fabric of a society, whether ancient or modern; and from the start to the end, its circulation is inexhaustible. Relying on the written character, the historical origin of the book is demonstrated and the meaning is laid out; with the choice of the pronunciation, the reason is held up and the significance is laid out. When the meaning and the significance are both made clear, and the reason and the origin synthesized, the all-around and penetrating teaching should thereby be displayed. (The preface to Lunyu Yishu èźșèŻäčç [Subcommentary for the Meaning of the Analects], in HUANG Kan, 2â3)
Although the book has been known as Lunyu since the Han dynasty, SHI Yongmao believes that it was originally simply referred to as Zhuan äŒ , âthe Teaching,â and then it started to be called Kong Zi Lunyu (Master Kongâs Analects), parallel to other famous books emerged during the time, such as Lao Zi, Zhuang Zi, Mo Zi, Meng Zi, and Xun Zi. Later, people omitted Kong Zi and abbreviated it as Lunyu. There is abundant textual evidence that the book was referred to as Zhuan in the early Han and never as Lunyu. In between, however, there are numerous references to the book as Kong Zi (see Shi, 12â17). This is a significant point to keep in mind because it means that quotes in old texts that begin with âKong Zi says âŠâ may not be Confuciusâ sayings; instead, they may mean âThe Book of Kong Zi [i.e., Lunyu, the Analects] says.âŠâ
ćŠèçŹŹäž Book 1
1.1ćæ°ïŒăćŠèæ¶äč äčïŒäžäșŠèŻŽäčïŒææèȘèżæčæ„ïŒäžäșŠäčäčïŒäșșäžç„èäžæ ïŒäžäșŠććäčïŒă
The Master said, âTo learn (xue ćŠ) and to practice (xi äč ) what is learned repeatedly (shi æ¶), is it not pleasant? To have companions (peng æ) coming from far distances, is it not delightful? To be untroubled when not recognized by others, is this not being an exemplary person (junzi ćć)?â
When unspecified, âthe Masterâ always refers to Confucius.
Confucius believes that, biologically, human beings are similar in nature. It is through practice (xi äč ) that they diverge (17.2). Because the word xi also means âreviewâ in modern Chinese, the first statement is sometimes read as âTo study and review what is studied repeatedly, is it not pleasant?â This reading would make the statement an exaggeration, because reviewing the same thing repeatedly will more likely make a person bored instead. For Confucius, learning is not so much about stockpiling propositional knowledge as it is about gaining embodied abilities and transformation of the person, which Song and Ming dynasty Confucians call gongfu. For this kind of learning, the instructorâs teaching can only be understood and appreciated through oneâs own diligent practice. It can be a source of joy because only through repeated practice can one gradually gain a deeper awareness of what is learned and see its emerging benefits. The joy derived from such practice can be so powerful that it made Confuciusâs disciple YAN Hui âunable to stop even if he wanted toâ (9.11). It is therefore not convincing to read xue narrowly as studying books, as HUANG Shisan é»ćŒäž (1789â1862) did (see CHENG Shude, 4).
The word shi æ¶ has also been taken as âat the appropriate timeâ by XING Bing éąæș (932â1010), thus rendering the first statement: âTo learn and to practice what is learned at the appropriate time, is it not pleasant?â (see Xing, 2457). Although the original Chinese reads a little less naturally this way, the emphasis on practicing at the right time makes perfect sense. One may use âit is never too late to learnâ to encourage late learning, yet it is undeniable that learning is easier when one is still young. It is also important to practice what is learned before one forgets it.
The Chinese word rendered as âcompanionâ here is peng æ, which, according to BAO Xian ć
ćž (7 BCEâ65 CE)âs commentary, meant âthose who shared the same gate.â However the concept might be broadened, it was (and still is) different from you ć, or âfriend.â Having companions coming from a âfar distanceâ is an indication of a personâs virtuosity. An exemplary person has the ability to âmake others happy, if they are nearby, and attracted, if they are far awayâ (13.16, see also 16.1).
The last statement also contains the idea that the purpose of learning is to improve oneself rather than to impress others (14.24). Exemplary persons focus on doing what deserves to be acknowledged or appreciated, and on giving proper acknowledgment to others (cf. 4.14, 1.16). They do not demand all-around perfection from others. If others fail to recognize them, they will forgive them rather than become resentful of them.
As for the reason why, of all the teachings of the Master, this passage is placed at the very beginning of the entire book, there are also different opinions. In general, it seems to be that the Masterâs teachings are centered around learningânot just bookish learning but practical learning that would result in the transformation of the person. Such a person will have a joyful life and will particularly appreciate the joy of having harmonious interactions with people, near or far. Although they enjoy the pleasure of having companions, they will not be disturbed if not recognizedâbecause their learning is âfor the selfâ (cf. 14.24). HUANG Kan and XING Bing believe that the three parts of the passage show a process of starting to learn to becoming a teacher. Some others (such as LI Zehou ææłœć), however, believe that there is no particular reason behind placing this passage at the beginning.
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Master You said, âThere are few who, being filial (xiao ć) and fraternal (di ćŒ), are fond of offending their superiors. There has been none, who, not liking to offend against his superiors, has been fond of stirring up chaos. Exemplary persons cultivate the root, for having the root established, the Way will grow. Filial piety and fraternal loveâthey are the root of human-heartedness (ren ä»), are they not?â
âMaster Youâ refers to YOU Ruo æè„, one of the only two disciples of Confucius consistently honored as a master in the Analects. This is evidence that his disciples were heavy-handed in compiling and editing the Analects, or that he was highly respected by his peers, or both.
Filial piety (xiao ć) means love, devotion, duty, and respect for oneâs parents, but it can be extended to elders of earlier generations. Fraternal responsibility (di ćŒ) refers to love and respect of younger brothers to elder brothers, which can be extended to others of oneâs own generation.
Some commentators suspect that the word ren ä» is used here as its homophone ren äșș, human (as in the case of 6.26); hence, the last part should be âthe root of being human.â
The root metaphor plays an important role here. Passage 2.21 suggests that Confucius also takes being filial as the root of a good government. The idea of filial piety shows the fundamental difference between the Confucian view of love, which starts from oneâs immediate family and then extends outward, and universal love without discrimination, most famously advocated by Mo Zi. The recognition of the primacy of familial love, a feeling that everyone is familiar through oneâs experience, as a starting point of oneâs cultivation for broader humanity puts Confucianism on a more easily recognized footing than abstract universal moral principles. A comparison ...