Psychology
Scientific Research
Scientific research in psychology involves the systematic investigation of human behavior and mental processes using empirical methods. It aims to expand knowledge and understanding of psychological phenomena through the formulation of hypotheses, collection and analysis of data, and drawing of conclusions. This rigorous approach helps to ensure the reliability and validity of findings in the field of psychology.
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11 Key excerpts on "Scientific Research"
eBook - ePubEssentials of Clinical Psychology
An Indian Perspective
- S. K. Mangal, Shubhra Mangal(Authors)
- 2023(Publication Date)
- Routledge(Publisher)
- Research is not conducted in a haphazard way. It represents systematized efforts, studious inquiry or examination, and scientific or critical investigation involving well-planned and definite steps of a scientific method or approach for realizing its set goals or objectives.
- Research is a process and not a product. It can be employed as a tool, means, or method of manipulating the things, concepts, and available data for arriving at reliable and valid conclusions for serving the goals or objectives of the research.
After getting, acquainted with what research is, it becomes essential for us to examine some of the pertinent questions regarding the conduct of research work in clinical psychology in the form of:- What are the purposes or goals of research studies in clinical psychology?
- What types or kinds of research are undertaken in clinical psychology?
- What methods and techniques are used in collecting information or data in clinical psychology research?
- What is Meta-Analysis as a method used by researchers in clinical psychology for the reliability and validity of research findings?
- What type of ethical principles or codes of conduct need to be observed on the part of researchers in clinical psychology?
Goals of Clinical Psychology Research or Investigation
As said earlier in defining the term, research is a purposeful activity undertaken for serving concrete objectives and goals. Now the question arises, what purposes or goals are aimed for, in general, on the part of clinical psychologist researchers? The research work carried out in this concern must help clinical psychologists in their professional preparation and effective exercising of their functions as professional clinical psychologists, such as knowing and understanding the various types of psychological disorders, their prevalence, characteristic symptoms and syndromes, causes of their occurrence, methods of their assessment and diagnosis, and the ways and approaches utilized for their treatment. In light of these different functions associated with research work in clinical psychology, the goals and objectives served through clinical psychology research may be summed up as follows.
eBook - ePub- Ann L. Weber, Joseph Johnson(Authors)
- 2011(Publication Date)
- Collins Reference(Publisher)
CHAPTER 2 Research Methods in Psychology T his chapter presents an overview of the basic methods of research that characterize psychology. It begins with an introduction to the scientific method that guides research in many disciplines. It also introduces key statistical concepts that are used to assess research findings, as well as a discussion of research ethics. As a science, psychology depends on a variety of research methods for its accumulated knowledge. To appreciate the findings of psychology, to evaluate their strengths and weaknesses, it is necessary to understand these methods. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD The scientific method is not unique to psychology, but describes a process or cycle that characterizes “good science.” In fact, this method dates back to the work of Aristotle (384–322 B.C.), although these days, it has changed somewhat. By systematically adhering to the scientific method, research on a particular topic is guided by a process of self-correcting theory development, testing, and improvement. Theory Development The scientific method is concerned with theory development, testing, and refinement. A theory is a set of integrated principles and assumptions that organizes data, explains behaviors, and makes testable predictions. Unfortunately, the term “theory” in common usage has taken on a more imprecise meaning that often refers to a guess or hunch. In science, theories are not just educated guesses of what will happen, but systematic formalizations of how and/or why things happen. A conjecture about who committed a crime or what will happen when you microwave some random object, is not a theory. However, a coherent system for explaining differences and relationships between living organisms from today and millions of years ago (for example, evolution) is an established theory
eBook - ePubPsychology in Historical Context
Theories and Debates
- Richard Gross(Author)
- 2017(Publication Date)
- Routledge(Publisher)
● This represents a contradiction within his own thinking. On the one hand, he embraced the Enlightenment beliefs that if people are free from the strait-jackets represented by the Church, monarchy, and aristocracy, they would be able to create a better society where justice and liberty would flourish. On the other hand, people are too easily swayed and need the guidance of philosophers and scientists to find their way.(Based on Hewett, 2008)Even within the context of natural science, many (if not most) of the features listed in Table 2.1 have been challenged. In the following sections, we shall describe some of these challenges and begin to ask how the use of the methods used in natural science can be appropriately applied to the study of human psychology.Empiricism
We noted in Chapter 1 that the vast majority of Psychologists would regard themselves as Methodological Behaviourists: reflecting the legacy of Watson, the use of empirical (scientific) methods, in particular controlled experiments, is a taken-for-granted modus operandi for most research Psychologists. This quantitative approach is part-and-parcel of what is commonly referred to as mainstream Psychology.More generally, belief in the necessity of collecting data in some form and exposing those data to some form of analysis is a principle shared probably by all Psychologists – including those who are clearly not Experimental Psychologists and who offer radically different alternatives to the experimental approach, such as discourse analysis and other qualitative methods. (These are discussed further below in relation to Social Constructionism.)In In Defence of Empirical Psychology (1973), Donald Broadbent, an ardent Behaviourist (and also a highly influential figure within Cognitive Psychology: see Chapters 1 and 6 ), equated empirical Psychology with Behaviourism. He also points out that ‘empirical Psychology’ has two meanings: (1) the one relating to Methodological Behaviourism as described above; and (2) a philosophical account of human nature with Associationism at its core (as proposed by the British empiricists, most importantly Locke: see above); this became central to Watson’s brand of Behaviourism (see above and Chapter 6 ). In this second sense, ‘empiricism’ denotes the view that all, or most, of our knowledge is derived from our experience of the external world; it is usually contrasted with rationalism, according to which our knowledge is prior to, and independent of, experience (e.g. innate/inborn, or derived from logical reasoning). These extreme views lie at the heart of the nature–nurture debate, which has run through much of mainstream Psychology’s history (see Box 2.6
eBook - ePubEducation and Psychology in Interaction
Working With Uncertainty in Interconnected Fields
- Brahm Norwich(Author)
- 2002(Publication Date)
- Routledge(Publisher)
Psychology is an alluring, puzzling and even a mysterious field. It can be seen to contain crucial knowledge and understanding about the mind and human behaviour which can answer many of the questions about human nature which concern us all. Such answers can hold out the promise of solutions to human problems, something which is particularly relevant in a secular age when the traditional answers from religion have become less plausible and acceptable. It is seen (witness the images projected by the media) as offering those who are familiar with its secrets the potential, if not the actual power, to control and perhaps manipulate others. Psychology, focusing on the mind or the psyche, also has associations with what is not physical and material, with ghostly processes which lurk in some immaterial realm. Though there has been a significant growth of a scientific approach to psychology over the last century, and that is now the dominant mode of study, this development has not been welcomed consistently. Put briefly and simply, a scientific mode offers the authority and power associated with science in other fields where it has achieved considerable successes, such as in physics and biology. This arises from an agenda which aims to identify causal mechanisms which can be applied to the control of psychological outcomes. But this very process can also be seen to be dehumanising in denying the role of human meaning and agency. Despite this, psychology has over the last century attracted many hopes and expectations. This was recognised by William James as regards teachers and teaching, as noted in the last chapter. Currently psychology is attracting many students in Higher Education. Figures quoted by Gale (1997), for example, indicate that in the USA psychology produces the second largest number of major graduates, after business administration and management. A world-wide survey indicates a doubling of the number of qualified psychologists between 1982 and 1992. There has been a similar growth in Higher Education psychology places in the UK.Modern psychology is sometimes portrayed as a robust, if young, science which contains some explanations of key psychological phenomena and at least has the methods which have the promise to develop further and more powerful explanations and techniques. For example, Grey (1981) argued that psychology is much younger than other sciences, and that it is only a matter of time before it catches up. This commitment to a scientific approach to the study of humanity has been justified by its contribution to understanding and resolving some of our urgent and immediate problems. Science can be seen, argued Eysenck, asthe expression of reason in its highest form and science therefore is our one and only hope for survival. (Eysenck, 1972, p. xvi)Science is the tool and creation of human reason; now is the time to introduce it into human affairs as well, and base our conduct on scientific facts. (p. 323)Yet despite these confident assertions, there have been over the last half century continuing doubts about psychology’s outcomes. For example, in the 1950s the philosopher Wittgenstein, who was interested in exploring the nature of psychological concepts and attributions, stated:The confusion and barrenness of psychology is not to be explained by calling it a ‘young science’; its state is not comparable with that of physics, for instance, in its beginnings. For in psychology there are experimental methods and conceptual confusion. The existence of experimental method makes us think we have the means of solving the problems which trouble us; though problem and method pass one another by.
No longer available |Learn more- John D. DeLamater, Jessica L. Collett(Authors)
- 2018(Publication Date)
- Routledge(Publisher)
methodology , which is a set of systematic procedures that guide the collection and analysis of data. In a typical study, investigators begin with a question or hypothesis amenable to investigation. Next they develop a research design. Then, they go into a research setting and collect the data. Next, they code and analyze the data to test hypotheses and arrive at various conclusions about the behaviors or events under investigation. Throughout this process, investigators follow specific procedures to ensure the validity of the findings.When investigators report their research to the wider community of social psychologists, they describe not only the results but also the methodology used to obtain the results. By reporting their methods, they make it possible for other investigators to independently verify their findings.Independent verification of research findings is one of the hallmarks of any science. Suppose, for instance, that an investigator were to report some unanticipated empirical findings that ran contrary to established theory. Other investigators might wish to replicate the study to see whether they can obtain the same findings in other settings with different participants. Through this process, investigators with differing perspectives can identify and eliminate biases in the original study. If the results are replicable, they are more likely to be accepted by other social psychologists as reliable, general findings.In this chapter, we will discuss the research methods used in contemporary social psychology. This discussion will provide a foundation for understanding and evaluating the empirical studies discussed throughout this book.Characteristics of Empirical Research
There are several issues common to all forms of empirical research. Specifically, we will consider the objectives that typically underlie empirical research, the nature of the hypotheses that guide research, and the factors that affect the validity of research findings.Objectives of Research
Investigators conduct social psychological studies for a variety of reasons. Their objectives usually include one or more of the following: describing reality, identifying correlations between variables, testing causal hypotheses, and developing and testing theories.
eBook - ePubObserving Children in Their Natural Worlds
A Methodological Primer, Third Edition
- Anthony D. Pellegrini, Frank Symons, John Hoch(Authors)
- 2012(Publication Date)
- Psychology Press(Publisher)
HAPTER 2Science, Psychology, and Research
A t first blush, some readers may be taken aback by the use of the word “science” in the title of this chapter. Don't be, because I use the term “science” in a general sense whereby hypotheses are first generated and then tested, in a cycle of induction and deduction. Hypotheses, as you'll see, are educated “hunches,” derived from theory, that are held up for scrutiny: Does the evidence support or fail to support the hypothesis? Direct observations are a crucial part of this process for both basic research and for solving problems in everyday settings, such as in schools and families. In this chapter, I will discuss, generally, the nature of science and the scientific method, and how they are applicable to observational methods in the context of social science research. Positioning social science as “science,” rather than, say art, situates it in a context with extant rules and conventions for conducting research. Indeed, different definitions of science limit those activities which would be considered “research.” This chapter will serve to orient you to basic assumptions associated with conducting Scientific Research.What is Science?
Science, and Scientific Research, helps us to understand the “nature of things,” though very few today would suggest that it enables us to approach knowing an absolute and unchanging truth. Additionally, Scientific Research can also have practical implications. By practical I mean, Scientific Research can be used to address and possibly solve problems in everyday life, whether they be in the work place, and at or in school. Sometimes these two areas of research are dichotomized as “basic” and “applied” science.Basic science is typically associated with generating and testing hypotheses derived from theory. Theory, as will be discussed, is an overarching explanation for some phenomenon. Basic science can be descriptive, explanatory, or predictive. Applied science, on the other hand, uses the scientific method to solve everyday problems, such as workplace bullying or children's noncompliance at school and home. As you will see, however, the basic vs applied dichotomy does have fuzzy boundaries. For example, you could invoke a theory (e.g. social cognitive theory), in the service of solving a practical problem (workplace bullying), to make predictions about causes (e.g. bosses tolerate and model bullying) and remediation (e.g. have positive models and do not reinforce negative models). If these predictions are framed in terms of hypotheses derived from a theory, the outcomes are certainly “basic” though possibly, as you will see below, at a lower level of abstraction than other hypotheses.
eBook - ePub- Michael W. Eysenck(Author)
- 2013(Publication Date)
- Psychology Press(Publisher)
The most common way in which scientists (including psychologists) attempt to test their hypotheses is by means of experiments. Although this is frequently the most effective method available, the history of science demonstrates very clearly that scientific progress does not necessarily depend on carrying out laboratory experiments. Consider, for example, the science of astronomy. In spite of the fact that astronomers generally don't carry out experiments in the normal sense, they have been able through careful observation to obtain much valuable information about the nature of the universe.In similar fashion, many important issues in psychology cannot be examined under laboratory conditions. For example, those who have been exposed to traumatic events (events causing a powerful shock) such as a major accident or kidnapping, sometimes subsequently develop a condition known as post-traumatic stress disorder. It is very important for psychologists to try to understand the processes triggering this disorder, but it would be completely unacceptable in ethical terms to attempt to produce this disorder under experimentally controlled conditions.Goals of science
What are the goals of science? As Malim et al, (1992) pointed out, three of the main goals are as follows:- prediction;
- understanding ;
- control.
The theories formed by scientists permit them to make predictions or hypotheses about what will happen in situations that they have not previously investigated. For example, psychologists such as Thorndike discovered that animals could be persuaded to behave in certain ways if their behaviour was followed by reward or reinforcement. This led them to predict that the same would be true of the human species. The success or otherwise of predictions stemming from a theory are of great importance: any theory that generates numerous incorrect predictions must be seriously flawed.Even if a theory generates a large number of accurate predictions, it does not necessarily follow that we will have a good understanding of what is happening. For example, a theory of memory proposed by Craik and Lockhart (1972) included the prediction that memory will be better for material that has been processed in terms of its meaning than for material that has not. Although this prediction has been confirmed experimentally several times, the precise reasons why it is beneficial to process meaning still remain unclear.
eBook - ePubIntroduction to Psychological Science
Integrating Behavioral, Neuroscience and Evolutionary Perspectives
- William J. Ray(Author)
- 2021(Publication Date)
- Routledge(Publisher)
The story of Clever Hans shows us that all organisms, including humans, are sensitive to their environment. This is true whether we are interacting with other people or being part of an experiment. Thus, in psychological experiments there are a number of opportunities for those who are researchers to influence those who are participants in ways that were never intended. Participants can also influence researchers. For example, participants in experiments may respond to their own ideas or internal demands rather than those of the experiment itself.What Are the Methods of Science?The methods of science closely parallel our ways of learning about the world. We interact with the world and gain new knowledge and understanding of what we experience. However, in doing psychological research, we do this in a more organized and logical manner. We may observe and describe what we see, which is referred to qualitative research. We can also measure and report the number of specific factors that can be used in a mathematical manner, which is referred to as quantitative research. The scientific approach emphasized in this chapter will describe both qualitative and quantitative approaches. In both, researchers approach a particular question or topic in a logical manner. We can think about a critical approach to science in terms of four stages.- Scientists first begin with an idea or expectation. A formally stated expectation is called a hypothesis. The scientist says, “I expect this to happen under these conditions,” and thus states the hypothesis.
- Second, scientists look to experience to evaluate the accuracy of their ideas or expectations about the world. That is, they try to find or create the situation that will allow them to observe what they are interested in studying.
- Through observation and experimentation, scientists can begin to evaluate their ideas and expectations about the world. Learning about the world through observation and experimentation is an example of empiricism
eBook - ePubGraduate Research
A Guide for Students in the Sciences
- Robert V. Smith, Llewellyn D. Densmore, Edward F. Lener(Authors)
- 2016(Publication Date)
- Academic Press(Publisher)
Chapter 5Principles of Scientific Research
Robert V. Smith*Llewellyn D. Densmore†Edward F. Lener*** Collaborative Brain Trust University Consulting (CBT UC), Sacramento, CA, USA† Department of Biological Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USA** University Libraries, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USAAbstract
History confirms the benefits of science and Scientific Research. The scientific method includes observation, hypothesis development and testing, experimentation, and interpretation. Observation should include introspection that helps in defining and solving problems, and synthesizing information to differentiate the old from the new, the profound from the mundane. Sharing observations and research results will lead to criticisms that call for the habits of self-criticism, and receptivity to criticism from others. Keen observations should lead to the development of hypotheses that frame out problems worth pursuing. Testing hypotheses through pilot or preliminary examinations leads to formal experimentation that is marked by quantitative measurement, controls, planning, design, and execution of experiments, including modeling and protocol development. Execution may lead to serendipitous results, but the role of serendipity in research should not be overrated. Research results require interpretation, including tabulating, plotting and visualizing data, statistical analyses, literature work, introspection, and discussions with colleagues.Keywords
observation hypothesis theory experimentation serendipity interpretation criticismOutlineObservation 64Using Observations and Experiences to Identify Problems for Study 66Hypotheses 67Experimentation 71Interpretation 76Ever since the dawn of civilization, people have not been content to see events as unconnected and inexplicable. They have craved an understanding of the underlying order in the world … Humanity’s deepest desire for knowledge is justification enough for our continuing quest.
eBook - ePub- Elliot Hearst, Eliot Hearst(Authors)
- 2019(Publication Date)
- Routledge(Publisher)
Behavior, as the term is used here, is broadly conceived, referring not only to actions constituting the organism’s current adjustment to the demands of its environment but also to the processing and storage of information relevant to long-term adjustment of the individual and, in the case of human beings, society.Much of the soul searching and qualms about the future of experimental psychology seems to arise not from observations of failure of the basic methods and approach, but rather from feelings on the part of many psychologists that the methods should not work as well as they actually have and surely cannot continue to do the same. In view of the many lessons from ethology that the behavior of organisms cannot be fully understood without adequate appreciation of their normal environmental settings and the behavioral tendencies and organizations characteristic of their species, how can it be possible to arrive at behavioral or psychological laws of real generality by examining arbitrarily selected samples of behavior in artificial laboratory environments? And considering the accumulating demonstrations by the currently flourishing discipline of developmental psychology that nearly all adult behavior of any complexity is strongly conditioned by individual learning histories, how could there be psychological laws or principles that cut across individual differences in past experience?Investigators close to the mainstream of experimental psychology have been as aware as others of these apparent paradoxes, but rather than being swayed by philosophical arguments they have tended to seek constructive solutions. One form that these efforts have taken during the last decade is the distinction between structural and control processes elucidated by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968). The distinction took hold rapidly among cognitive psychologists and those associated with the information-processing movement and, by the end of the decade, has even begun to penetrate investigations of animal learning and memory. By control processes one understands the habits (especially pertaining to stimulus selection), criteria, strategies, and heuristics that enter into virtually all behavior of much intrinsic interest outside of the laboratory and certainly all that would be termed cognitive or intellectual in the usual meaning of these terms.
eBook - ePub- Guido Villa(Author)
- 2014(Publication Date)
- Routledge(Publisher)
The old-fashioned theories failed in doing this, owing to the restricted limits within which they confined the science of Psychology. Psychology, according to those systems, being only an introduction to gnosiology and metaphysics, was deprived of its most important characteristic—viz. that of being the most general, fundamental, and explanatory of the moral sciences. Nor must we be led into error by the definition given above, according to which Psychology studies the results of experience from the subjective and individual point of view. It must be understood that the term individual does not signify that the study of the mental processes is to be left to the subjective judgment of each individual, for no science could exist under such conditions. Science presupposes generalisation, is a product of processes of abstraction, and based entirely upon concepts. For this reason the term individual must be understood in a general sense. This being a contradiction in terms, it is best to use the term subjective in place of individual. Considered in this way, Psychology is the science which studies the general forms of mental processes, considered as a whole, under their objective and subjective aspects, and as manifested not in this or that particular individual, but in an abstract individual, taken as a general type. 2 The connections existing between Psychology and the natural sciences are not so apparent as between Psychology and the moral sciences, and can be reduced chiefly to questions of method. The subject-matter of science, whether physical or mental, being the same, it is possible to apply to the mental sciences the methods of the physical sciences; but their aims being quite different, the laws of Psychology must necessarily be different from those of the natural sciences. Thus cerebral processes are quite different from mental processes, notwithstanding the fact that the latter cannot be produced without the former
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