Sociological Theories

12 Key excerpts on "Sociological Theories"

• 

  eBook - ePub

  Individualism, Holism and the Central Dilemma of Sociological Theory

  • Jiří Šubrt(Author)
  • 2019(Publication Date)
  • Emerald Publishing Limited

    (Publisher)

  Chapter 1

  What is Sociological Theory?

  In this book, individualism and holism represent two distinct perspectives typically applied in the process of the formation of theory in the social sciences, specifically in the field of sociology; therefore, it is sensible to make a brief excursion to view the complex way theory is structured in contemporary sociology.

  The word theory is nowadays used in both scientific and everyday discourse, and in any given context, people usually have some idea what it means. Theory, especially but not only in lay terms, tends to be set in opposition to practice. As such it is associated with attempts at a rational interpretation of phenomena in a particular field (nature, society, human beings) based on very general, abstract forms of thought – such as concepts, opinions, hypotheses and laws. With the help of these, internally logical systems of understanding are developed that we can call theories in the broader sense of the word. Theory is not a direct, immediate description of really occurring phenomena, but rather an attempt to identify and interpret their basic features in an idealised and abstract way. Since every scientific study is by nature selective (never able to take into account every single aspect connected with a segment of reality), no theory can capture a studied phenomenon in its full complexity, but must in some way be reductive. Moreover, individual specific phenomena have characteristics of varying importance to different scientific fields of enquiry.

  Here a preliminary guideline is provided by Austrian sociologist Max Haller’s assertion that social-scientific and sociological theory is ‘a system of general statements with a systematic link to empirically observable social phenomena’ (Haller, 1999, p. 39). As understood by British sociologist Anthony Giddens, social theory1

  Sign up to read

  Learn more about book
• 

  eBook - ePub

  The Sociological Quest

  An Introduction to the Study of Social Life

  • Haydn Aarons, Evan Willis(Authors)
  • 2022(Publication Date)
  • Routledge

    (Publisher)

  The perspective or theoretical approach affects the conduct of research when we come to make sociological explanations. For many, if not most, Sociologists the hallmark of a sociological way of approaching social phenomena is the concern with the integration of theory and method; integration in the sense of each being moulded and shaped by the other. The theoretical approach taken determines, to a considerable extent, the conduct of subsequent social research since the different perspectives generate certain sorts of research problems, which in turn favour certain sorts of methods for doing research.

  On theory

  What is a theory? Theory is a central element of all academic disciplines and all sciences. A theory is a statement that explains the nature of a relationship between concepts or ideas. Earlier we considered a theory about the relationship between external threat and internal solidarity in a society. Theory is necessary to begin to make sense of the ‘facts’; that is, to interpret and give them meaning. Sometimes a distinction is drawn between theory, which is assumed to be somehow the ‘ivory tower’, and practice, which is more concrete and more useful. Behind every practical course of action, however, lies a theoretical basis for it. Often, spelling out the theory involves detailing the implicit bases or principles that make ‘the facts’ intelligible. Both theory and practice are closely related and both are important to the sociological quest.

  In the early chapters, Sociology was defined as a social science involving a quest for explanations based on a rational appeal to impartial evidence. This chapter considers the nature of different sorts of explanations and the issue of evidence and how we ‘know’ things about the social world. The term used for this questioning of how we know things is ‘epistemology’. An example of an epistemological question is if we are asked how I know what the meaning is of someone, say, gesturing towards someone else with their middle finger held upwards! This is to recall the infamous incident on a trip to Australia when the then president of the United States, on departing from an official function, gave what he assumed was a victory sign to his hosts! Considering these questions will demonstrate how the foundations of Sociology lie within philosophy, and the differences between the major sociological perspectives have their origins within the discipline of philosophy.

  Sign up to read

  Learn more about book
• 

  eBook - ePub

  Inequality in U.S. Social Policy

  An Historical Analysis

  • Bryan Warde(Author)
  • 2021(Publication Date)
  • Routledge

    (Publisher)

  CHAPTER 4 Theoretical Frameworks

  DOI: 10.4324/9781003023708-4

  WHAT IS THEORY ?

  The social work dictionary defines theory as amongst other things explanations of the etiology/causes of social problems, such as inequality, poverty, discrimination, and so on. These explanations help social workers understand the development and causes of social problems as the basis for potential intervention that addresses those problems effectively (Baker, 2013).

  WHY THEORIES ARE IMPORTANT TO SOCIAL WORK

  There are several reasons why theories are essential to social work. First, they provide a framework and order for practice. Even with the skills necessary for practice, social workers have to ground these in theoretical perspectives to help reflect on what they are doing and why they are doing it (Beder, 2000). Second, theories help social workers to identify, describe, explain, predict, control, and cope with various aspects of the worker–client relationship (Beer, 2000). Third, they inform specific practice interventions and strategies developed to address a vast array of human behavior. Fourth, they orientate/tell social workers about what is considered normative and abnormal development along a particular trajectory and supposed predictable life stages (Baker, 2013). Fifth, they explain how individuals, families, groups, organizations, communities, societies, and social movements develop and function (Baker, 2013). Sixth, and as indicated in the social work dictionary definition, they provide a conceptual framework for understanding the development of social problems and their impact on client populations, as well as possible solutions for addressing these issues (Baker, 2013).

  This chapter introduces the three theories that provide the book’s conceptual frameworks for examining social inequality and its pervasive and powerful influence on social policy. These theories are critical race theory (CRT), intersectionality theory (IT), and conflict theory (CT). Also introduced as a way of understanding the essence of social inequality is the capability approach.

  Sign up to read

  Learn more about book
• 

  eBook - ePub

  Sociology

  • John Ambenge(Author)
  • 2021(Publication Date)
  • Page Publishing, Inc.

    (Publisher)

  Chapter 1 Sociological Perspectives Learning Objectives

  • Discuss the similarities and differences between sociology and other social sciences.
  • Understand the objectives of sociology and the nature of sociological imagination.
  • Develop a sociological perspective.
  • Identify the social forces that influence the development of sociology.
  • Be able to identify some leading social theorists and their contributions to sociology.
  • Think about the theoretical issues that frame the study of sociology.

  What Is Sociology?

  This chapter introduces you to the discipline devoted to the study of human social behavior in our social world. It introduces two primary themes: First, in human societies, things are not necessarily what they seem to be. What we are normally taught about ourselves and our societies is often misleading. Let’s put it this way—sociology is not common sense. Second, throughout the text, we will be considering the impact of Sociological Theories to the study of society.

  Sociology may be defined as the systematic or scientific study of human social behavior that deals with characteristics of groups and societies and how these social units or forces affect people’s way of life. Sociologists apply both theoretical perspectives and research methods to examination of human social behavior. They pay special attention to the structure of groups, organizations, and societies and how these structures shape interactions and relationships among people. In everyday life, sociologists study human societies and their social interactions to develop theories of how human social behavior is shaped by group life, the relationships among group members, and the influence of the group on individual social behavior. As such, sociology depends on systematic analysis through research, whereas common sense does not.

  The study of sociology helps us to see our world from a different perspective because it deals with issues of social phenomena. There is virtually no topic that sociology does not touch. A central tenet of sociology is that it involves the application of some notion of science to the study of society. In this case, it is sometimes difficult to see where sociology is distinct from other disciplines. In sum, sociology

  Sign up to read

  Learn more about book
• 

  eBook - ePub

  Introducing Social Theory

  • Pip Jones, Liz Bradbury, Shaun LeBoutillier(Authors)
  • 2015(Publication Date)
  • Polity

    (Publisher)

  1 AN INTRODUCTION TO Sociological Theories

  Introduction

  Humans are social beings. Whether we like it or not, nearly everything we do in our lives takes place in the company of others. Few of our activities are truly solitary and scarce are the times when we are really alone. Thus the study of how we are able to interact with one another, and what happens when we do, would seem to be one of the most fundamental concerns of anyone interested in human life. Yet strangely enough, it was not until relatively recently – from about the beginning of the nineteenth century onwards – that a specialist interest in this intrinsically social aspect of human existence was treated with any seriousness. Before that time, and even since, other kinds of interests have dominated the analysis of human life. Two of the most resilient, non-social approaches to human behaviour have been ‘naturalistic’* and ‘individualistic’ explanations.

  Rather than seeing social behaviour as the product of interaction, these theories have concentrated on the presumed qualities inherent in individuals. On the one hand, naturalistic explanations suppose that all human behaviour – social interaction included – is a product of the inherited dispositions we possess as animals. We are, like animals, biologically programmed by nature. On the other hand, individualistic explanations baulk at such grand generalizations about the inevitability of behaviour. From this point of view we are all ‘individual’ and ‘different’. Explanations of human behaviour must therefore always rest ultimately on the particular and unique psychological qualities of individuals. Sociological Theories are in direct contrast to these ‘non-social’ approaches. Looking a little closer at them, and discovering what is wrong or incomplete about them, makes it easier to understand why Sociological Theories exist.

  Naturalistic theories

  Naturalistic explanations of human activity are common enough. For example, in our society it is often argued that it is only natural for a man and a woman to fall in love, get married and have children. It is equally natural for this nuclear family to live as a unit on their own, with the husband going out to work to earn resources for his dependants, while his wife, at least for the early years of her children’s lives, devotes herself to looking after them – to being a mother. As they grow up and acquire more independence, it is still only ‘natural’ for the children to live at home with their parents, who are responsible for them, at least until their late teens. By then it is only natural for them to want to ‘leave the nest’, to start to ‘make their own way in the world’ and, in particular, to look for marriage partners. Thus they, too, can start families of their own.

  Sign up to read

  Learn more about book
• 

  eBook - ePub

  Social Research Methods by Example

  Applications in the Modern World

  • Yasemin Besen-Cassino, Dan Cassino(Authors)
  • 2023(Publication Date)
  • Routledge

    (Publisher)

  CHAPTER 4

  Theory and Paradigms

  DOI: 10.4324/9781003266327-4

  Learning Objectives

  • Be able to describe the role of theories in social sciences and research design
  • Be able to summarize the historical progression of positivism in social sciences
  • Be able to describe the dominant theories in social sciences and identify the types of research questions each theory asks

  THEORY IS THE BASIS OF ALL REAL SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH . While it may seem that researchers are just crunching numbers, or doing interviews, their research is actually guided by motivating theories or paradigms. These theories tell researchers what sorts of questions to ask and what sort of methodologies to use and guide them in creating their hypotheses. Theories generally don’t make specific predictions about the outcome of a study, but rather work on the level of concepts. Theories are lenses to see the social world: ways of looking at social phenomena. So, while a relationship between two variables might be proven or disproven, this cannot prove or disprove the theory itself – just that particular operationalization of that theory.

  Since theories can’t be proven wrong, they can’t be proven right, either: this is what researchers call falsifiability. As such, there’s no such thing as a correct theory – theories are simply established ways of looking at the world. Any phenomenon in the world that social scientists are interested in can be studied through the lens of many theories, and the question is never which of these is the correct way of seeing that phenomenon, but rather, which theoretical perspective is the most useful in this circumstance. Researchers should never be tied to a particular theory but should be flexible, adopting different theories based on which is most useful for studying any particular phenomenon. For instance, theories can be divided into micro- and macro-level theories: micro theories focus on individuals and small groups, while macro theories focus on larger groups and institutions within society. Sigmund Freud’s theories about the roots of psychosis are very much on the micro level, so it wouldn’t make a lot of sense for researchers to try to use them to explain overall levels of mental illness in society (not that it hasn’t been attempted). Similarly, Karl Marx’s theories about class conflict are macro-level theories

  Sign up to read

  Learn more about book
• 

  eBook - ePub

  Social Research Methods by Example

  Applications in the Modern World

  • Yasemin Besen-Cassino, Dan Cassino(Authors)
  • 2017(Publication Date)
  • Routledge

    (Publisher)

  CHAPTER 4 Theory and Paradigms Learning Objectives • Be able to describe the role of theories in social sciences and research design • Be able to summarize the historical progression of positivism in social sciences • Be able to describe the dominant theories of social sciences and identify the types of research questions each theory asks • Be able to explain the role of theory and the importance of being guided by a theoretical perspective in research design THE IMPORTANCE OF THEORY Theory is the basis of all real social science research. While it may seem as if researchers are just crunching numbers or doing interviews, their research is actually guided by motivating theories or paradigms. These theories tell researchers which questions to ask and which methodologies to use and guide them in creating their hypotheses. Theories generally don’t make specific predictions about the outcome of a study, but rather work on the level of concepts. A relationship between two variables might be proven or disproven, but the theory itself cannot be proven or disproven—just that particular operationalization of that theory. Since theories can’t be proven wrong, they can’t be proven right either. This is what researchers call falsifiability. As such, there’s no such thing as a correct theory—theories are simply established ways of looking at the world. Any phenomenon in the world that social scientists are interested in can be studied through the lens of many theories, and the question is never which of these is the correct way of seeing that phenomenon, but rather, which theoretical perspective is the most useful in this circumstance

  Sign up to read

  Learn more about book
• 

  eBook - ePub

  Late Modernity in Crisis

  Why We Need a Theory of Society

  • Andreas Reckwitz, Hartmut Rosa, Valentine A. Pakis(Authors)
  • 2023(Publication Date)
  • Polity

    (Publisher)

  Its proposed way of interpreting a given social situation must be based on conceptually sophisticated, theoretically grounded, and empirically supported foundations. Here, however, we encounter a basic problem that has stubbornly accompanied sociology since its earliest stages: the problem posed by the opposition between structural theories and action theories, which recurs again and again in all sorts of variants – for instance in the opposition between macro- and micro-sociology, between methodological holism and methodological individualism, between structuralist and culturalist or materialist and idealist approaches, between understanding and explaining. My thesis is that all these oppositions – one could also say, states of tension – have one common root. They are a result of the fact that social realities can be described from the inside and from the outside, and yet the descriptions obtained from these different perspectives can hardly ever be made to align. From the outside – that is, from the perspective of the third person – social practices and institutions can be studied and described in the same way (or a similar way) as planets, atoms, or the life of plants. From the inside – that is, from the perspective of the first person – all “objectivations of life,” and thus these very same institutions and practices, can be understood in phenomenological terms espoused by the likes of Wilhelm Dilthey, Hans-Georg Gadamer, Weber, Taylor, and Habermas, which means that they can be understood in terms of their own horizon of meaning and sources of motivation. 27 On the one hand, the concept of a functionally differentiated society as opposed to segmented or stratified formations, as developed in Luhmann’s systems theory, represents a structuralist account based on the third-person perspective, as does any Marxist analysis of society based on its class structure

  Sign up to read

  Learn more about book
• 

  eBook - ePub

  Contemporary Sociological Theory

  • Steven Loyal, Sinisa Malesevic(Authors)
  • 2020(Publication Date)
  • SAGE Publications Ltd

    (Publisher)

  Introduction: Sociological Theory in Context This book, like its companion volume, Classical Sociological Theory, follows in the footsteps of Lewis Coser's 1971 classic textbook Masters of Sociological Thought: Ideas in Historical and Social Context. Coser's book was rather unusual at the time of its publication: instead of just summarising the key concepts and theories of leading social theorists it attempted to situate each thinker within the broader social, political, cultural and historical context. Whereas most textbooks offered a few general remarks on the author's biography and some would devote a couple of paragraphs to the historical period, Coser's book very successfully integrated a discussion on the key theoretical contributions of each theorist with an extensive treatment of the wider social contexts, biographical and intellectual influences, and the analysis of historical changes that took place during the author's lifetime. A central approach underpinning Coser's book derives from the sociology of knowledge, which foregrounds the idea that the production of knowledge is context-dependent. The term sociology of knowledge originates with Max Scheler but has its roots in two sociological figures: Marx and his claim that social being determines consciousness; and Durkheim with his analysis of the social nature of the categories and classification systems. There have, however, been attempts to combine both standpoints, specifically in the work of Bourdieu. In his analysis of the work of Heidegger, Bourdieu (1991 [1988]) identifies the existence of socio-political and sociological moments as reflecting two analytically distinct fields. Although both of these fields possess a certain relative autonomy and follow a different ‘logic', it is possible for one field to become translated into the other. This forms a central underpinning of our approach. There is no doubt that sociology, as other social science disciplines, is the brainchild of the Enlightenment

  Sign up to read

  Learn more about book
• 

  eBook - ePub

  An Introduction to Sociology

  • Ken Browne(Author)
  • 2019(Publication Date)
  • Polity

    (Publisher)

  Functionalism A sociological perspective which sees society as made up of parts – such as the family, education system and religion – which work together to maintain society as a whole. Society is seen as basically harmonious and stable, because of the agreement on basic values (value consensus) established through socialization.

  Consensus theorists, when studying society, emphasize these shared norms and shared values that exist between people, and see society made up of individuals and social institutions working together in harmony, without much conflict between individuals and groups.

  Conflict theory

  Conflict theory

  emphasizes that social order is maintained by coercion and power, with power in the hands of those with the greatest political, economic and social resources. Conflict theory has its origins in the work of Karl Marx (1818–83) and Max Weber (1864–1920), and is found in the work of

  feminist

  writers.

  Conflict theory A sociological approach that emphasizes social differences and conflicts, with inequalities in wealth, power and status all creating conflicts between individuals and groups.

  Feminist Someone who believes that women are disadvantaged in society, and should have rights, power and status equal to those of men.

  Rather than viewing society as essentially peaceful, harmonious and based on value consensus, as consensus theorists do, conflict theorists emphasize social differences and conflicts between individuals, groups and classes. They emphasize conflicts created by inequalities in wealth, power and status when describing and explaining society, as individuals and groups struggle against one another, pursuing different interests. Conflict theory is associated with Marxist, Weberian and feminist theories (see pages 53 –9 ). Conflicts exist, for example, between White British people and BAME groups, between men and women, between the rich and the poor, between employers and employees, between different religious groups (e.g. Christians and Muslims), and between different age groups (e.g. younger and older people). Figure 2.3

  Sign up to read

  Learn more about book
• 

  eBook - ePub

  Rural Development

  A Geographical Perspective

  • Keith Hoggart, Henry Buller(Authors)
  • 2015(Publication Date)
  • Routledge

    (Publisher)

  quo , albeit at times in the guise of reformism (as in the `welfare approach' to human geography). The second seeks to expose the mechanisms of societal organisation in order to promote radical change (i.e. as part of a process of 'overthrowing' the existing order). With such divergent basic aims, it comes as no surprise that a vast chasm separates the methodologies, analytical questions and causal propositions of these two theoretical stances. It must be emphasised that these divergences are not restricted to development models, but infiltrate every aspect of social research. In order to understand the relevance of these divisions to development theory, it is therefore pertinent to appreciate the broader foundations of this basic divide.

  Divisions in Social Theory

  Theories of societal stability and change overwhelmingly trace their roots to one of two 'grand theories'. Although referred to under different titles by varicus writers, these are most commonly known as integration theory and conflict theory. As outlined by Dahrendorf (1959), the basic premises of integration theory hold that: (1) every society is comprised of a relatively persistent, stable structure of elements (e.g. families, communities, institutions); (2) every society has a well integrated structure of elements; (3) every element has a function which it contributes to the maintenance of society (for families, the socialisation of children into the conventions of society is one such function); and (4) every society is based on a consensus of values amongst its rrembers. Following this line of reasoning through, the unequal (geographical, social or other) distribution of societal. benefits is jointly explained and justified on the grounds that: (1) tasks are crucial to the continued existence of any society to a greater or lesser extent; (2) the skills or capabilities needed to perfonn the most crucial tasks are limited in supply; (3) personal sacrifices must be made by individual people to ensure that a capacity exists for crucial task performance (e.g. lack of income during periods of training, and/ or localities living with externalities like pollution, social disruption and changing work patterns in order to benefit from industrialisation); (4) to induce acceptance of these sacrifices, 'capable people' must be offered access to scarce and desired rewards; and (5) the resulting unequal. distribution of societal benefits becomes institutionalised because it is positively functional (in other words, it is beneficial for the continued existence of society as a Whole). Expressed in short-hand form, the integrationist theme is contained in the Davis-Moore thesis that social inequality is an unconsciously evolved device whereby societies determine that their functions of greatest importance are performed by those persons (or in those geographical areas) with the best capabilities (for a review see Lopreato and Hazelrigg 1972 or Blowers et al

  Sign up to read

  Learn more about book
• 

  eBook - ePub

  Human Behavior in the Social Environment

  Perspectives on Development and the Life Course

  • Anissa Rogers(Author)
  • 2022(Publication Date)
  • Routledge

    (Publisher)

  As with symbolic interactionism, feminist theory teaches that people construct their own realities. In the case of women and members of minoritized groups, this reality is often based on history and past experiences of discrimination and oppression. Thus among the obvious strengths of feminist theory are its focus on equality and its questioning of the dominant structure. These strengths uphold the basic ethical tenets of the social work profession.

  Regardless of a person’s standpoint on the appropriate focus for feminist theory, this perspective clearly has drawn attention not only to predominant cultural values and structures but also to the ways in which we generate knowledge. Many social workers and scholars in other disciplines have relied on feminist theory to guide their research. One result of this process has been the creation of a body of literature that is qualitatively different from past work. Feminist theory has also validated the use of alternative research methods such as inductive reasoning, qualitative methods, the equal treatment of research participants (for example, they are often called “co-investigators” in this type of research), and the ways in which results are interpreted and applied.

  Cultural Perspectives

  Although no single theory explains culture and its effects on human behavior, we need to consider cultural theories, particularly in the context of social work. Ideas, concepts, and applications of culture are inextricably linked with social aspects that affect clients. Of all the disciplines, social work is probably the most concerned with understanding the complexities of culture, especially when working with people.

  There is no universally accepted definition of culture; culture can mean different things to different people. In fact, definitions vary depending on the discipline and theory from which they originate. Even within the field of social work, the meaning of culture will differ depending on the context, problem, client, and social worker. From a sociological standpoint, culture is the result of all human endeavors. Culture can be viewed as including all things human such as norms, values, customs, symbols, thoughts, traditions, politics, religions, languages, philosophies, and material objects (Barker, 2003 ; Turner, 1998

  Sign up to read

  Learn more about book