The Role of Technology in Distance Education (Routledge Revivals)

Tony Bates

• Editore: Routledge
• Anno: 2014
• ISBN:
  9781317574187
• Edizione: 1
• Argomento: Didattica
• Categoria: Didattica inclusiva

This book, first published in 1984, provides a comprehensive review of the range of technology that was being used in distance education. Technological developments in word processing, video-disc and viewdata as well as computer-based learning had revolutionised the potential for distance education. These developments required the role of more 'conventional' distance learning media, such as broadcasting, tuition and text, to be reassessed. This book, written by international experts in the field, explored the state of the art at the time, and also provided their ideas on how future developments were likely to evolve. This book is ideal for those studying education and communications.

Part 1 Introduction and Overview

1 The Growth of Technology in Distance Education

Tony Bates

Institute of Educational Technology, Open University

DOI: 10.4324/9781315738598-1

Introduction

When the British Open University was established in 1969, it was a radical innovation in many ways. In particular, the teaching system was based on a combination of broadcasting and specially written printed texts. Harold Wilson's concept of ‘the University of the Air’ was a major factor in bringing the Open University to the forefront of public attention, ensuring widespread publicity and the heavy enrolments essential for its political survival in the early years. From its inception, the Open University was technologically based.

The concept of the Open University was always more complex than the notion of “broadcast courses” (although this is still a popular misconception). The founding fathers recognised early in the planning stages the inappropriateness of basing a University primarily on broadcasting; for a start there would not be enough transmission time. By the time then that the first 25,000 Open University students began their studies in 1971, broadcasting contributed no more than 10% of a student's study time, the most heavily used medium being the correspondence text, supported by a system of part-time tutors and counsellors (see Perry, 1974, for a full account of the establishment of the Open University).

Nevertheless, the teaching model was still relatively simple, in media terms. Text, broadcast television and radio were the main delivery media. In the 13 years that the Open University has been operational, its budget has increased from £2.25 million to £60 million, its students from 25,000 to 100,000, its range of courses from 4 to 150, and its television transmission time from just under four hours a week to over 35 hours a week. Throughout this period, though, for virtually all its courses, the printed text has remained paramount.

Developments in Distance Education

Nevertheless, while the Open University's basic teaching system has changed surprisingly little over the last 13 years, there have been some major developments in distance education, paralleled by important technological changes.

Kaye and Rumble (1982) have identified a number of different models of distance education. Basically though, there have been two major variations from the national, centralised, high-resourced, high-population, autonomous distance teaching model of the original Open University. The first is the development of a number of smaller, more modest autonomous open universities. In Canada there is Téléuniversite, in Quebec; Athabasca University in Alberta; and the Open Learning Institute in Vancouver. There is the Open University of Sri Lanka and the Allama Iqbal Open University of Pakistan in Asia; the Fernuniversität of West Germany, UNED of Spain, and the Everyman's University of Israel in Europe; UNED of Costa Rica and UNA of Venezuela in South America. These are smaller, relatively low-cost institutions, relying even more heavily than the Open University on print as the main teaching medium.

The second development is not really new at all. Distance learning – even at a higher education level – did not start with the Open University. In particular, in the USA, Soviet Union, East Germany, India, Canada, France, Australia and New Zealand, campus-based universities for many years have offered extension services for part-time off-campus students. Recently, full-time enrolments in higher education institutions have been reduced in many countries, with a consequent increase in low-cost, part-time off-campus activities, and this tendency is spreading even to Britain (see Spencer, 1980).

However, both in the smaller autonomous open universities and in extension services of conventional institutions, the use of media other than print and the peripatetic or local tutor is still extremely rare. Unlike the Open University, where nearly every one of the 150 different courses has a television component, few of the other distance teaching institutions use broadcasting extensively, nor are other less expensive audio-visual media generally used.

The low use of less expensive media is rather surprising. While distance teaching projects have become smaller and more flexible, the range of relatively low-cost media available over the last few years has also increased dramatically. Despite its widespread use of broadcasting, it is still the Open University though that is experimenting most with these new technological developments. There is then considerable scope for other institutions to increase their use of low-cost audio-visual media.

Developments in Technology

Developments in technology since the establishment of the Open University have led to four major trends:

1. A wider range of media is now becoming available for use in the home. To broadcast television, radio and home experiment kits can be added audio and video cassettes, video discs, cable and satellite TV, the telephone, microcomputers, viewdata and teletext systems. When the Open University was established, decision-making regarding the use of media was relatively simple. In essence, the choice had been made before the University opened. The texts would provide the “core” material but television and radio would be available on every course to provide support for the texts. The University and the BBC/Open University production centre were staffed and equipped accordingly. The actual number of programmes made each year is still determined largely by staffing and financial considerations rather than by academic necessity, the latter being extremely difficult to determine. The proliferation of new media though raises a number of issues. Choice now becomes more real and more difficult to make. Are some media more “effective” than others? What do we mean by “effective”? Should new media replace existing media, or should they be used in addition (and hence become an add-on cost?) How should academic staff be made aware of the potential and limitations of new media? Who should advise on choice of media? Who knows about choice of media?
2. There is a greater diversity of access to new media. The three original media – broadcast television, radio and printed text – were not chosen by accident for the Open University. Virtually every home in the land could be accessed through these media. Thus no-one in Britain should have been prevented from enrolling for the Open University because of difficulty in getting the teaching material. However, two things have happened in the last 15 years. The principle of universal access regarding broadcasting at the Open University has been eroded, because not all students can watch or listen at the times at which programmes are broadcast. Secondly, most alternative media (video-cassettes, cable TV, etc.) are not universally available in all homes, nor will they be by the end of this decade, if at all. This raises questions of social equity. Should distance teaching institutions use media that are not universally available? Since units costs are lowered if students can share equipment – for instance, through availability at local study centres – to what extent should distance teaching be home-based or local centre-based?
3. Costs are coming down for new media. A C60 audio-cassette, containing one hour of material, can be delivered to an Open University student for less than 50 pence. This cost covers everything (copying, materials, packaging, post) except design and production, and the student can keep the cassette. Similarly, a 25-minute television programme can be delivered on video-cassette for 75 pence per student – or for just over £2 for an hour's material – if the student returns the cassette for re-use at the end of the course. 16K microcomputers are now retailing for less than £100, and a 48K microcomputer at £125. A video-disc player retails for under £400, and a video-cassette player can be rented in Britain for less than £12 a month. All these prices will move lower – relative to inflation – rather than higher in the future. In comparison, print costs are rising faster than inflation and Open University broadcast television productions were averaging over £35,000 a programme in 1983. Developments in some areas of technology mean that even institutions with low budgets can afford to produce and distribute some non-broadcast audio-visual media, if they wish.
4. New media are giving students greater control over their learning and greater interaction. This is a most significant pedagogic development. While broadcasting is uninterruptible by the student, new media provide greater opportunities for revision, in-depth thinking, and integration. New media increase the amount and level of interaction between a student and learning materials, and in some cases give more opportunity for human interaction. This means that audio-visual media should in theory become more effective in developing learning. But in turn this raises the question of what likely effect the use of different technologies will have on cognitive thinking.

The Purpose of the Book

These are some of the questions that this book deals with. It does not attempt to provide comprehensive answers, nor a general theory of media selection (although the last two chapters do examine some of the conceptual issues arising from these technological developments). It does attempt though to deal with practical matters arising from the use of various technologies in distance education. The book then has two principal audiences. The first is staff working in the steadily growing number of “specialised” distance teaching institutions around the world. The second target group is the equally growing number of staff in conventional institutions who are now considering the possibilities and the practicalities of off-campus teaching.

Again, in the space available, we cannot deal with any single medium in depth, but we do hope that the chapters will stimulate distance teachers to consider or reconsider the appropriateness of a wider range of media than hitherto, or to treat with caution some of the more flamboyant claims made for some technologies. Each author has attempted to provide appropriate references for those who wish to follow up certain areas.

Given the speed of technological development, and the pressure to use technology for its own sake, caution is essential. Nevertheless, audio-visual media are not sufficiently used in distance teaching, primarily because academics and administrators are generally unaware of their potential, inexperienced in their use, or frightened off by their imagined costs. I hope that this book will help remove some of these misconceptions, or provide some realism where it is needed.

References and additional reading

• Bates, A.W. (1982) “Trends in the use of audio-visual media in distance education” in DanielJ. et al, Learning at a Distance. Edmonton: International Council for Distance Education/Athabasca University.
• Coffey, J. (1978) Development of an Open Learning System in Further Education. London: Council for Educational Technology.
• Kaye, A. and Rumble, G (eds) (1981) Distance Teaching for Higher and Adult Education. London: Croom Helm
• Lewis, R. (1983) Meeting Learners’ Needs Through Telecommunication: A Directory and Guide to Programs. Washington DC: American Association for Higher Education.
• Perry, W. (1974) Open University. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
• Rumble, G. and Harry, K. (1982) The Distance Teaching Universities: London: Croom Helm.
• Spencer, D.C. (1980) Thinking About Open Learning Systems. London: Council for Educational Technology.

Part 2 Media in Course Design

2 Texts and Word Processors

Paul Lefrere

Institute of Educational Technology, Open University

DOI: 10.4324/9781315738598-2

Introduction

‘Even the best typist occasionally transposes lettres, or repeats themmm, or just hits the wring key. While you check for typing errors you realise – no, that's not what I meant to say. I’ll just move a few paragraphs around and reword the odd sentence or three.’

(Hudson, 1981, page 218)

What is the difference between a word processor and a conventional (or an electronic) typewriter? How does a word processor work? Does it really save time or money? What can it do besides help with typing? Is it easier to write course material with a word-processor? What is the best kind of machine for my work? Can I use it to produce camera-ready copy? To drive a typesetter? To update a course? These are just some of the many questions which Open University staff have asked over the years at seminars and demonstrations of word processing, questions which this chapter will attempt to answer.

What Can Word Processors Do?

Word processors can do many things which typewriters cannot. For example, the machine I used to type the first draft of this chapter has a key which corrects any transposition errors I notice; other machines go further and automatically check spelling word-by-word, as text is typed. With a word processor, material which has been typed in can be altered at a later date quickly and easily, without using correcting fluid or cutting-and-pasting.

Those alterations can range from insertions and deletions to the reordering of sentences. In every case, alterations can proceed without any unnecessary rekeying of parts which do not need changing. Once a piece of text has been typed on a word processor, it may be copied from one document to another and used many times; administrative applications include the ‘personalised’ letter, which is assembled from a library of standard paragraphs.

In offices with much repetitive typing, word processing helps typists do more or do the same amount faster and more easily. It is easy with a word processor to change from single spacing to double spacing. If multiple copies of a manuscript have to be sent out, yet only some of the recipients need a double-spaced version, some reprographic savings are certainly possible. On an Open University cour...

Indice dei contenuti

• Cover Page
• Half-title Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table Of Contents
• About the Contributors
• PART 1: INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
• PART 2: MEDIA IN COURSE DESIGN
• PART 3: MEDIA IN COURSE MANAGEMENT AND PRESENTATION
• PART 4: SELECTION OF TECHNOLOGY AND COURSE DESIGN