Patricians and Emperors

The Last Rulers of the Western Roman Empire

Ian Hughes

• Editore: Pen & Sword Military
• Anno: 2015
• ISBN:
  9781473866447
• Argomento: Storia
• Categoria: Storia militare e marittima

This engaging historical narrative of the fall of the Western Roman Empire focuses on the individuals in power during its final forty years. The fall of the Western Roman Empire was a chaotic but crucial period of European history. To bring order to our understanding of this time, Patricians and Emperors offers a concise chronology with comparative biographies of the individuals who wielded significant power. It covers the period between the assassination of Aetius in 454 and the death of Odovacer during the Ostrogoth invasion of 493. The book is divided into four parts. The first establishes context for the period, including brief profiles of generals Stilicho (395–408) and Aetius (425–454), and explains the nature of the empire at the time of its initial decline. The second details the lives of general Ricimer (455–472) and his great rival, Marcellinus (455–468), by focusing on the stories of the numerous emperors that Ricimer raised and deposed. The third deals with the Patricians Gundobad (472–3) and Orestes (475–6), and also explains how the barbarian general Odovacer came to power in 476. The final part outlines and analyses the Fall of the West and the rise of barbarian kingdoms in France, Spain, and Italy.

Part One

PRELUDE

Chapter One

The Roman Empire, 395–455¹

Historical Overview

In 378 the Roman Emperor Valens was defeated and killed by a Gothic army at the Battle of Adrianople. The devastating loss was one of the worst defeats ever suffered by the Roman Empire, with many thousands of troops being killed alongside the emperor. Although the battle has sometimes been seen as having drastic repercussions, including being a major factor in the Fall of the West, many of these interpretations are now seen as exaggerations and so have long since been amended. Valens’ replacement, Theodosius I, only concluded a treaty with the Goths in 382, after a campaign lasting several years. Yet in one way it was the Roman ‘victory’ in the Gothic war of 376–382 that was to have major consequences: although technically defeated, in contrast to the fates of other ‘barbarian’ tribes ‘defeated’ by the Empire, the Goths were allowed to settle in the Empire en masse, rather than being divided and scattered across Europe and the Middle East. Furthermore, unlike previous settlements, the Goths were allowed to keep their political leaders, a decision which resulted in the Goths retaining their cohesion as a single entity. As time passed they quickly became a major alien force within the Empire, intent on maintaining their identity and resisting assimilation into the Empire. The consequences for the Empire would be dramatic.

Unlike the defeat at Adrianople, the revolt of Magnus Maximus in 383 and his subsequent defeat and death at the hands of Theodosius in 388 is sometimes overlooked, but the war resulted in a major loss of troops for the West. When combined with the Civil War of 394, during which Theodosius was again forced to invade the Western Empire to defeat Arbogast and Eugenius at the Battle of the Frigidus, it is clear that in the 380s and 390s the Western Empire suffered severe losses in manpower.

Following the death of Theodosius in 395 Honorius, Theodosius’ younger son – still a minor – was made Emperor of the West. Stilicho, the husband of Theodosius’ adopted daughter Serena, became Honorius’ magister militum and regent. At the same time Alaric, the leader of a group of Goths in the Balkans, revolted – probably due to the way the Gothic ally troops had been employed by Theodosius during the Battle of the Frigidus in the previous year, during which many Goths had been killed at the first encounter.

In 395 Stilicho campaigned against the rebellious Alaric in Illyricum but political interference from Constantinople resulted in the campaign being a failure. A second campaign in 397, by which time Alaric was in Greece, also ended in failure. Shortly afterwards the army commander in Africa, a man named Gildo, revolted against Stilicho’s rule but he was defeated in a very quick campaign.

Whilst this was happening in the West, in the East Alaric accepted an official military position in Illyricum with the Eastern Empire. However, due to internal politics in the East, in 401 Alaric invaded Italy. Fortunately in April 402 he was defeated at the Battle of Pollentia and in June of the same year at the Battle of Verona. Forced out of Italy Alaric appears to have accepted a relatively minor position in Illyricum under the command of Stilicho.

In 405 a large army of Goths under the command of Radagaisus invaded Italy. After the defeat of Radagaisus in 406, Stilicho made the momentous decision to invade those parts of Illyricum held by the East. These were important recruiting grounds for the West and their loss had severely hindered Stilicho’s policies. His plans were ruined by the invasion of Gaul by a mixed force of Vandals, Sueves and Alans. Stilicho was forced to abandon the Illyrian campaign. The combination of the failed campaign into Illyricum and the invasion of Gaul was enough to secure Stilicho’s downfall. In 408 he was killed by order of the Emperor Honorius.

Stilicho’s execution marked the beginning of a period of confusion and revolt, during which in 410 Alaric and his Goths sacked Rome. Fortunately for Honorius, shortly afterwards Alaric died from an unknown illness. At the same time as these events in Italy, the Vandals, Alans, and Sueves took control of large parts of Hispania. The West appeared to be on the point of disintegration. However salvation was at hand. In 411 a man named Constantius was made magister militum. Constantius reconquered Gaul and in 418/19 settled the Goths in Aquitaine, but only after they had attacked and decimated the Vandals in Hispania, so restoring large parts of the Iberian Peninsula to Roman rule.

Although often seen as a grave error of judgement, the settlement of the Goths had many precedents: the practice of absorbing ‘new human resources from marginal areas was ingrained’ from the earliest period of Roman history.² The only difference from earlier practice was that in this case the Goths were again allowed to keep their leaders, rather than being dispersed and absorbed into the local population from the start. Constantius will have had no way of knowing the consequences of his actions. At the time, it appeared that Constantius would be able to restore the fortunes of the Western Empire, and, possibly in recognition of his ability, in 421 he was made co-Emperor to Honorius as Constantius III. Sadly for the Empire, he died shortly after his elevation.

In 423 Honorius also died. When Theodosius II, the Emperor in Constantinople, failed to nominate a new emperor for the West, a man named John was proclaimed. He sent a follower called Aetius to the Huns to ask for support. Unfortunately for John, in 425, before Aetius and the Huns could return, John was killed by forces acting on behalf of Valentinian III, the son of Constantius III and the candidate nominated by Theodosius as Western emperor – and yet another minor. When Aetius arrived in Italy with a Hunnic army he quickly came to an agreement with Valentinian and was given the post of magister militum per Gallias.

For the next four years Aetius campaigned in Gaul until in 429 he was made magister equitum praesentalis. In the same year the Vandals under their King Gaiseric, previously devastated by the Goths, crossed from Hispania to Africa before beginning the long journey towards Carthage. The Roman commander in Africa, a man named Boniface, was at war with Valentinian and so failed to stop their advance. Yet again internal politics had interfered with the smooth running of the Empire. Although Boniface and Valentinian quickly patched up their differences, Boniface was beaten by Gaiseric. Sadly, and despite the fact that a major enemy force was loose in one of the most important areas of the Empire, the West was once more riven by Civil War. In 432 Boniface left Africa and at the Battle of Rimini, in Italy, Boniface defeated Aetius. A short time after, Boniface died of wounds received in the battle and his son-in-law Sebastian took control of Rome. At this point Aetius fled to the Huns, returning in 433 to oust Sebastian and take his place as magister militum. From 433 until his death in 454 Aetius retained control of the Western Roman Empire.

The period of Aetius’ rule was one of great difficulty for the Empire. For example, the Goths in Gaul ‘rebelled’ in 436 and constant campaigns were needed to subdue them, as well as the Burgundians, the Franks, the Sueves, and the incessant bacaudic revolts in Gaul and Hispania.³

Yet the greatest disaster for the West took place in 439. In 435 constant pressure from all quarters had forced Aetius to allow the Vandals to settle in the western areas of North Africa. It was in 439 that Gaiseric broke the treaty and captured Carthage. The loss of the most productive region of the West, both in terms of agriculture and of revenue, was a blow from which the West would never recover. From this point on the West was to teeter on the brink of insolvency, with a detrimental effect on its ability to maintain an effective army and so wage war – as will be seen below.

Despite these major setbacks Aetius was seen at the time – and is still seen – as the last Roman commander who made a serious attempt to maintain the integrity of the Western Empire. Sadly, his efforts would be futile. His downfall began with the accession of Attila as King of the Huns, probably in 439.⁴ When Attila had his brother Bleda assassinated in 444 and assumed sole rule, it allowed Attila to increase the pressure on both East and West. At first his attention was focused on the East, which gave Aetius time to continue the necessary campaigns to maintain the unity of the West.

Events in 449/450 changed this. Honoria, sister of Valentinian, was caught having an affair. In desperation, Honoria appealed to Attila for support. At the same time, in August 450 a man named Marcian was crowned as the new Emperor of the East. He immediately renounced all the treaties with the Huns. Attila could now choose whether to attack the East in retribution or accede to Honoria’s appeal for help. He chose to confront Aetius in the West.⁵ In 451 Attila invaded Gaul, reaching as far as Orleans. Confronted by an alliance coordinated by Aetius, Attila retreated before being defeated at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains.

Baulked in Gaul, in 452 Attila invaded Italy, where, despite initial success, he was forced to retreat. In the following year he was preparing to attack the East when, after drinking too much at a wedding feast to celebrate another marriage, Attila died. Ironically the removal of the Empire’s greatest foe spelled the doom of Aetius. Believing that Aetius was no longer necessary, in 454 he was assassinated by Valentinian III. In the following year Valentinian was himself killed. The death of Valentinian III was to prove a major watershed for the Western Empire.

The Condition of the Empire

When the Emperor Theodosius died in 395 the Empire still resembled in outline the Empire of earlier centuries.⁶ However by the time of Aetius’ death in 454 things had changed. Although the East retained some of its vigour and managed to guard the frontiers against attack, the Western Empire was in terminal decline. In Gaul, the Franks had expanded their control far beyond the previous boundaries of the Empire; the Goths were now a settled and separate entity in Aquitaine; there were two allied settlements of Alans, one in the North and one in the South; and the Burgundians had been settled in the area now known as Savoy. In Hispania, although the Vandals had left and gone to Africa, the Sueves had remained and expanded their area of dominance. Furthermore, both Hispania and Gaul were victim to sporadic outbreaks of bacaudic revolts (on the nature of these ‘revolts’, see below).

All of these losses in land resulted in a concomitant fall in revenue, as well as the loss of recruiting grounds and prestige. But the losses in Gaul and Hispania were dwarfed by the loss of Africa. The province of Africa had supplied the city of Rome with its grain since Constantine the Great had ordered the building of Constantinople in the fourth century. The loss of this great source of food to the Vandals was detrimental to the Empire for obvious reasons. Just as importantly, many senators had lost a large proportion of the massive estates that had ...

Indice dei contenuti

• Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Contents
• Dedication
• Acknowledgements
• List of Maps
• List of Plates
• Introduction
• Part One: Prelude
• Part Two: Ricimer
• Part Three: Dissolution of the Empire – Gundobad and Orestes
• Part Four: The End – Odovacer, Julius Nepos And Syagrius
• Outline Chronology
• Notes and References
• Bibliography