Transmedia Storytelling and the New Era of Media Convergence in Higher Education

Stavroula Kalogeras

• Editore: Palgrave Macmillan
• Anno: 2014
• ISBN:
  9781137388377
• Argomento: Social Sciences
• Categoria: Media Studies

Stories, whether they are fact or fiction, popular or not, are a proven method of pedagogy. In the age of media convergence and with the advancement of technology, stories have morphed into new forms; however, their core purpose remains the same, which is to pass on knowledge and information. The internet, with its inherent interactivity, and story, with its inherent capacity to engage, can lead to innovative and transformative learning experiences in media-rich environments. This book focuses on web-based Transmedia Storytelling Edutainment (TmSE) as an andragogical practice in higher education. Story is at the forefront of this investigation because narrative is the basis for developing entertainment media franchise that can be incorporated into pedagogical practice. The propulsion of this analysis consists of practice-based research through narrative inquiry and an e-module case study presented on multimedia storytelling in the classroom. A Transmedia Storytelling Framework is provided for creating screenplays for cross-media projects and for analyzing their appropriateness in education. Additionally, a hypertext screenplay, which allowed students to dig deeper into the story word and to build more knowledge, is evaluated for its use in higher education. Since screenplays are by nature writing for the screen, it is believed that the more visual the input, the more likely it is to be memorized and recalled.

A link to The Goddess Within screenplay is available for download on the right hand side of this page.

1

Introduction, Theory, and the Media–Education Landscape

1.1 Introduction

It is time to imagine an education system that, rather than hindering, nurtures and encourages creativity. The research outlined in this book acknowledges the limitations of knowledge and the opportunities for different perspectives and approaches. More importantly, it ‘recognizes that not-knowing is a fundamental starting point for creativity’ (Seel 2012: 835). In the end, knowledge has to be about choices, and therefore about innovation, imagination, and possibilities (Wallerstein 2004: 56).

This book started out as a media-oriented investigation into transmedia storytelling that was to build on my prior experience in the field of media. However, it turned into something far richer. While reading the literature about transmedia, I discovered that professionals in the field believed there was an educational space for transmedia storytelling, although there was no research or literature directly related to this topic. This was not surprising, as transmedia storytelling is a relatively new discipline. In fact, it was only when I enrolled in an e-module called ‘The Foundations of Online Learning’ while conducting this research that the idea of merging the two disciplines (media and education) came to me, setting the stage for a convergence perspective.

Before we move ahead, it is important to take a brief look at my backstory. Throughout my formal education, I was challenged by the educational system. Not only did it generally fail to engage me, but on those few occasions when it did engage, it failed to create any long-term retention. Looking back on this experience motivated me to move forward with great vigor on this current research. I had suffered under the traditional model of education because my learning style, which was visual, and then kinesthetic and auditory, was not accounted for. Proponents of the concept of learning styles believe that individual learning styles should be assessed and classroom methods should be adapted to the individual needs of learners. My learning style has never been assessed in any classroom situation. As a result, I was intrigued to formulate a new model of education in a new environment. A sense of self-investigation and an innovative spirit, along with a deep interest in storytelling, media, and education, became the underlying drivers for this work. This book is a creative and critical inquiry.

The inquiry set forth in these pages was to discover how transmedia storytelling could be used as a learning strategy in e-learning environments. However, these strategies can also be used in traditional settings. During my literature review, I discovered there was no theoretical framework for writing a screenplay that could then be used as part of a transmedia pedagogy; therefore, it was crucial initially to first develop a framework that could be used during story development. I also considered educational parameters that could assist with the creation of the components of what I term ‘Transmedia Storytelling Edutainment’ (TmSE). While enrolled in ‘The Foundations of Online Learning’, I was exposed to e-education, and thus was able to determine the differences between online and offline learning environments. This was also where I discovered that excellent module design and content aggregation, as well as strong tutor performance, were needed to sustain a successful learning environment. Simply put, good performance creates a good educational experience. Performance takes into account the way the module flows, as well as the online interaction and collaboration. In addition, while going through the module and interacting with the hypermediated environment, which is engrained into e-learning environments, the idea of adding hyperlinks to the screenplay under investigation came to mind.

I came to understand that the screen was the central focus as well as the mediating factor between the teacher and the learner. The screen has certain affordances that the classroom does not, and it was crucial to acknowledge these differences and create material that would play to them. The notion of manipulating the conventional textbook into a form that was far more appropriate for the screen, along with the idea of using instructional stories, coalesced in the form of a screenplay (termed a ‘screentext’ for e-learning purposes). The thought of using fewer words in the reading material that could create images in the mind was appealing because fewer words on a computer screen would be ideal for human–computer interaction. Also, the use of a combination of image and text seemed to benefit different learning styles, as text and image could reinforce one another and perhaps create retention.

After developing the screentext, I went on to develop the multimodal edutainment (a portmanteau word combining ‘entertainment’ and ‘education’) module, which was based on the knowledge I had gained thus far about transmedia storytelling and online learning (it is important to note that I had prior experience with teaching media modules in higher education). The e-module that I developed, entitled ‘The Practice of Digital HIStorytelling: Exploring the Trojan War’, focused on the use of narrative technique to teach digital storytelling. The theme of the course material was history/mythology. In this case, students learned about story creation and about ancient Greece; however, the overall premise is that stories can teach any subject, whether they are narrative history or not.

The theory that broadly informs my book is Jenkins’s (2006) Media Convergence Theory, from which I have made my observations. However, various theories, models, and frameworks underlie my theoretical perspective and practice-based work. The practice-based research methods include the development of a screenplay and the design and execution of an e-module. The applicable theories are listed in Section 1.2 (The overview of the route to discovery) and described briefly in each chapter.

This work is important because of the rise of reformative social movements that will demand alternative practices and models of education. The present book is structured into eight chapters with narrative at the core, and it draws on empirical research from a diverse set of disciplines. This chapter outlines the methodology, introduces media convergence, and provides an overview of the media landscape. Chapter 2 discusses the impact of media convergence on storytelling. Chapters 3 and 4 outline the impact of media convergence on education. Chapter 5 brings together pedagogy and fiction: the screenplay The Goddess Within (written specifically for this research for application in e-learning and to develop a transmedia storytelling framework) is discussed, and the transmedia storytelling framework is introduced. In addition, narrative theory and reflective practice are applied to test various theories for use in the digital classroom. Chapter 6 reflects on and analyzes the e-module and includes student feedback. In Chapter 7 the respondents to my research questionnaire provide their thoughts on the research questions. The chapter also summarizes the interviews and discussions with these professionals. Chapter 8 concludes the study. Goffman (1959) believed it was important to understand the relationships between narrative, experience, and meaning. This book attempts to put these relationships into a more contemporary perspective, and to compensate for media convergence experienced on an unprecedented scale.

The mode of inquiry set forth in this book, which is outlined in this chapter, links traditional qualitative methods of study with alternative forms of qualitative research. With the emergence of creative disciplines and cross-disciplinary modes of study, it is necessary to recognize alternative forms of reporting. Although the majority of the work presented is theoretical, the alternative form of research included is practice-based. Gray (1996) has defined practice-based research as that which ‘is initiated in practice, where questions, problems, challenges are identified and formed by the needs of practice and practitioners; and ... the research strategy is carried out through practice, using predominantly methodologies and specific methods familiar to us as practitioners’ (p. 3). The next section provides an overview of the route to discovery, and the individual chapters that discuss the practice include an explicit introductory methodology. The reason for providing the methodology and application together in a single chapter is to eliminate repetition and aid recall.

1.2 Overview of the route to discovery

The multi-method research approach employed for this work was designed to build on the synergy between traditional and artistic qualitative research methods, as well as case-based practices. The research process was not one of gathering materials but one of gaining knowledge, and as more knowledge was gained, more questions arose. I gained knowledge by reading scholarly literature on diverse topics: the Internet, education, entertainment, media, media literacy, technology, narrative, screenwriting, digital storytelling, transmedia storytelling, psychology, sociology, learning through play, multimodal learning, neuroscience, and the biology of learning, to name just a few. I then applied those theories that corresponded with my beliefs to develop the course and the screenplay (screentext). The research questions that came out of this process were designed to generate further knowledge to support the use of fictional stories and multimedia/multimodal delivery methods in education.

The practice-based research was viewed from the wide-ranging perspective of Media Convergence Theory (Jenkins 2006) and can be broken down into three components. First, a Hollywood-style screenplay was created in order to develop a transmedia framework. The transmedia framework is employed as a guideline for developing a screenplay that can later be used in e-learning environments as part of a transmedia edutainment approach. Second, the screenplay was transformed into a screentext, hyperlinks were added to some of the text, in order to be used in the e-module as part of the TmSE pedagogic strategy. Third, the case study in teaching tested the use of the screentext and the multimedia/multimodal edutainment approach. Student feedback was gathered on the e-module. Feedback was also obtained via a questionnaire on the transmedia storytelling method that was sent to a sample of transmedia professionals.

Heisenberg (1972) reveals that there are different models of inquiry, which in turn yield different forms of knowledge. The mode of study here was to combine narrative practice, a relatively new form of qualitative method, with traditional forms of qualitative research to see how one can inform the other. Before moving into the practice, however, it is important to introduce the narrative point of view.

1.2.1 Narrative theory and perspective

The narrative theory examined here has been applied by a variety of modern writers. It is perhaps best known from its application by George Lucas to the Star Wars stories, and Lucas acknowledges a debt to its originator, Joseph Campbell. Campbell’s theory of ‘the hero’s journey’, which was extracted from his 1949 book The Hero with a Thousand Faces, has particular relevance to the analysis of myth. The theory states that all stories consist of a common model, or structure, found universally in myths (and in movies), and that all the world’s heroes, both old and new, share the same path. (Academics refer to this as the ‘classic paradigm’, which fails to give credit where it is due.) Another proponent of ‘the hero’s journey’ is Christopher Vogler, who used Campbell’s work in Hollywood. Vogler wrote a now-legendary company memo for screenwriters entitled ‘A Practical Guide to The Hero with a Thousand Faces’, which he distributed to Disney executives in the mid-1980s (Vogler 2006). The memo later developed into his 2007 book The Writer’s Journey: Mythic Structure for Writers. This narrative methodology will be introduced in more detail in Chapter 5, where it will also be applied to the screenplay.

1.2.2 Screenplay

The empirical research centers on a screenplay entitled The Goddess Within, which I wrote as part of the practice-based research. The Goddess Within is a story that encompasses themes from Homer’s Iliad the story of the Trojan War and the Judgment of Paris (a contest among the Greek goddesses Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite as to who should receive the Golden Apple with the inscription ‘To the fairest’). My aim in writing a screenplay was to inquire from within, and from observation of, the creative process. One drawback of practice-based research is objectivity, however, the intimate connection of artists to what they do can provide further understanding (McNiff 2009). Conversely, detached observation neglects involvement and runs the risk of reducing the phenomenon to what we already know (Levine 2004).

The Goddess Within is fictional. And as Carmi says, ‘fiction is the language of vision – why shouldn’t it also constitute research? If we truly want to create new realities, we have to imagine them before we can move into them’ (see Sameshima 2008: 54). The writing of a Hollywood-formatted screenplay was undertaken in order to develop a transmedia framework. The framework is a guide that can be used in developing transmedia-oriented stories and in evaluating existing stories for educational purposes. The process of creating the screenplay was a sociocultural one, conducted through online peer collaboration. This kind of cross-cultural collaboration exemplifies sociocultural convergence in a media-saturated sphere. The screenplay, or more accurately, the ‘screenplay-to-understanding’ (a term coined for this book), is intended to offer practice in understanding a fictional story within a non-fiction context, or, simply put, a displaced story. ‘Displaced’ refers to the author dealing with some of the same themes present within the story, but in a different time and place; here, it can also refer to using a fictional story as an educational tool within an e-learning environment. One benefit of fiction is that it exposes students to experiences that they might one day encounter; in this way, it prepares them to deal with these experiences (their feelings) in advance through story.

The educational theory employed in developing the screenplay was Bruner’s Constructivist Theory (1960), which asserts that learning is a process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based on their current and past knowledge. This follows the principles of story development, where an author builds on events that are eventually resolved at the ending of the story.

1.2.3 E-module

The e-module, entitled ‘The Practice of Digital HIStorytelling: Exploring the Trojan War’, is a cross-mediated, story-based approach to e-learning that uses an entertainment component to entice and engage learners. Designing the course required the consideration of several educational theories, the most appropriate of which were selected to support the e-module. The e-module centered on the following theories, models, and frameworks, which I consider important when developing story-based curricula: Cognitivism (Bruner 1960; Schank 1975), Constructivism (Bruner 1960; Vygotsky 1978), Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (Mayer 2009), Multiple Intelligence Theory (Gardner 1993), Communities of Practice (Lave and Wenger 1991), Social Development (Vygotsky 1978), Instructional Scaffolding (Sawyer 2006), Laurillard’s Conversational Framework (1993), Kolb’s Learning Cycle (1984), and the Cone of Emotion (Zull 2002). The teaching–learning approach implemented was Salmon’s Five Stage Model (2000).

1.2.4 Questionnaire

A questionnaire was developed and administered to a non-random, theoretical sample of transmedia professionals. Their areas of expertise included transmedia storytelling, higher education, and the business of film production. Currently, the field has a limited number of experts, and therefore the sample size was small. However, the inputs of these professionals are immensely significant. According to Deacon and Pickering (2007), with regard to theoretical sampling, ‘the researcher seeks respondents who are most likely to aid theoretical development’ and ‘seeks people who are most likely to extend and even confound emerging hypotheses’ (p. 54). This was exactly the intention with the sample chosen. Asking questions of the topmost professionals in the field was the preferred method of inquiry. Transmedia storytelling professionals are a rare breed, and therefore feedback from the innovators themselves was required.

1.2.5 Framing the research question

There are two approaches to practice-led research. One approach is to formulate questions and then design experiments and situations that will further understanding (McNiff 2009). The second approach states that

Framing a research puzzle is part of the process of thinking narratively. Each narrative inquiry is composed around a particular wonder and, rather than thinking about framing a research question with a precise definition or expectation of an answer, narrative inquirers frame a research puzzle that carries with it ‘a sense of a search, a “research,” a search again’, ‘a sense of continual reformulation’. (Clandinin and Connelly 2000: 124)

This is not to say that narrative practice involves working aimlessly; rather, it involves working with an aim that is open to new insights and new questions. The problem or puzzle under investigation here is storytelling in the context of transmedia practice, and bringing the educational benefits associated with this practice into higher education. On this road to discovery, questions have been formulated (to adapt McNiff 2009), and a practice of continual reformulation was applied (to adapt Clandinin and Connelly 2000).

1.2.6 Gathering information

One of the data-gathering methods used was Inquiry Circles, which derives from practice-led research. This method involves planning, acting, and observing the process and consequences of change and ‘reflecting on these processes and consequences, and then replanning, acting and observing, reflecting and so on’ (Kemmis and McTaggart 2003: 381). The Inquiry Circles methodology is not documented in this book because it was used as a planning method; however, the final chapters reflect on the process of developing the screenplay and the e-module.

There is limited research on and direct inquiry into the educational aspects of transmedia storytelling, and no instructions on how to incorporate transmedia edutainment into e-learning are currently available. Therefore, one outcome of this study is progress toward developing a transmedia storytelling pedagogic strategy for higher education. The process of study was designed to draw on my past experiences in the media industry and to gain new experiences through the...

Indice dei contenuti

• Cover
• Title
• 1 Introduction, Theory, and the Media–Education Landscape
• 2 Media Convergence’s Impact on Storytelling, Marketing, and Production
• 3 Media Convergence’s Impact on Education67
• 4 Challenges, Concerns, and Critiques of Transmedia Storytelling Edutainment
• 5 Fiction: A Screenplay-to-Understanding
• 6 E-Module Case Study
• 7 Interviews and Discussion
• 8 Conclusion
• Appendix
• About the Author
• Bibliography
• Index