Applied Sociology for Social Work

Ewan Ingleby

• Publisher: SAGE Publications Ltd
• Year: 2017
• ISBN:
  9781526418715
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Scienze sociali
• Subtopic: Lavoro in ambito sociale

Sociology can help students understand why and how so many of the problems their service users face occur in the first place, helping them choose effective ways to communicate and make informed decisions on how their needs can be fully met. This book offers students a framework to explore how their professional responsibility to understanding sociology can be realised in every aspect of their work with a diverse range of service user groups including children and families, adults, older people, people with learning disabilities and people suffering from mental distress. The book takes students step-by-step through the theoretical grounding, what sociology is, how it is relevant to everyday social work practice, and what are the key aspects of sociological theory that need to be understood.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Sociology and social work

This book explores how sociology can be applied to social work. ‘Sociology’ and ‘social workers’ may be spoken about within the same sentence. They are strongly linked, and yet both sociology and social work are more complex than this. Sociology is an academic discipline with a profound philosophical heritage and social work is a complex profession. In the UK, social work has evolved to become a discipline that is characterised by a number of highly skilled professionals working in key areas to protect the rights of a complex range of individuals. This reflection outlines the need for this book. Sociology is a key discipline that social workers study, but the subject itself can be misinterpreted and its applicability can be lost in inaccurate understandings of the nature of the social work profession. Sociology is not a new subject. It is not a subject that is confined to the study of companionship. Sociology is a discipline that connects to the pursuits of philosophers who try to understand the world that they live in.

The book explores how three key sociological theories (functionalism, interactionism and conflict theory) can be applied to understanding the world frequented by many of the individuals who work with social workers. The book focuses on these three sociological perspectives because they reveal central concerns within the discipline of sociology. The concern with how social factors create social problems is at the heart of functionalism. Functionalists are interested in how the social world generates social meaning. ‘Societies’ are regarded as being more important than individuals. A ‘macro’ approach is taken in understanding the social world. This is similar to the questions that were pursued by philosophers like Plato (Audi 1999). Instead of focusing on individual perceptions, such philosophers pursue big questions. The nature of love in its entirety is considered. There is an attempt to explore the fundamental essence of love. There are also social workers who explore the answer to fundamental questions. The pursuit of how society shapes the plight of individuals is one example of such a big question. Social forces are regarded as being beyond individuals, in this instance.

A contrasting sociological perspective, interactionism, forms the basis of one of the other key themes in this book (Ingleby 2013). Interactionism is based on exploring the perceptions of individuals. As opposed to seeking causes to social factors that are beyond the understanding of individuals, the meaning generated by individuals becomes central to the social world. We witness what Audi (1999) refers to as a Copernican revolution of thought. Just as Copernicus was the scientist who discovered that the universe revolves around the sun, so, too, interactionists explore how individuals generate meaning through interaction. An interactionist might argue that there is no point in pursuing the answer to ‘big questions’ to which there are no answers. We can never identify the fundamental essence of ‘love’ in its entirety. We can, however, discover an answer to the questions asked of individuals. We can ask how it feels to be loved. In this way, the big question is turned around. It becomes a different question that is asked of an individual and there will be an answer. This way of exploring sociology is also at the centre of much social work. The perceptions of individuals are explored. ‘How do you feel?’ is a key question that is asked by social workers in general. This is why this second sociological perspective is central to the material in the book.

The third sociological model that is explored is known as ‘conflict theory’. This concept is based on the writing of Karl Marx. In this sociological model, the implications of the material world are explored. Marx (2013) draws attention to the importance of economic forces with regards to their impact on the lives of individuals. It is of interest that there are aspects of conflict theory that are similar to functionalism. Classical Marxism places an emphasis on the wider economic forces that are beyond individuals in that they are regarded as transcending the person. Capitalism, as an economic system, predates this author and there is every likelihood that it will exist for many years to come. In classical Marxism, the economy is studied in a functionalist way. The economy is regarded as being greater than individuals. Part of the reason for conflict theory being regarded as a complex aspect of sociological theory is due to the other strand of thought that contributes towards Marxist theory. This ‘neo-Marxist’ thinking places an emphasis on the importance of individuals engaging with social structures and generating new meaning. This is similar to interactionism. Thinking, conscious individuals are not regarded as being distinct from economic forces. They engage with the social world and create meaning in profound ways. The advantage of this way of thinking about the social world connects to much social work practice. As opposed to viewing social factors as the cause of every social problem, there is an acceptance that individuals are also influential in creating a meaningful social world. Conflict theory is a useful sociological concept because it appears to embrace both strands of sociological thought. A sensible way of resolving this ‘either/or’ dilemma appears to rest in accepting that the social world is a combination of social and individual factors. This enables us to have an appropriate methodology for exploring the issues that are confronted by social workers.

Book structure

The book is divided into a number of key chapters. The rationale of the book is based on my own experiences as a social worker working with children and young people with learning disabilities and challenging behaviour. I relied on understandings of sociology and psychology to help me with my practical work as a residential social worker. My understanding of the circumstances influencing these individuals was based on reflecting on the ideas of sociologists who are associated with functionalism, interactionism and conflict theory. Although I worked predominantly with children and young people, I also had some experiences in working with older people. Reflecting on these experiences has led to me writing a book that I would have liked to have accessed in my time as a social worker. The book is divided into a number of key chapters.

The first main chapter, Chapter 2, begins by identifying the key concepts and academics who are associated with functionalism (for example, Émile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons). Key concepts (for example, the analogy that social systems are like biological organisms) are outlined. After explaining the ideas within functionalism, the paradigm is analysed and appraised in order to help develop engagement with the material in the chapter. The final section of this chapter applies functionalism to social work. The chapter outlines that the emphasis on providing support from the state can be traced back to the functionalist emphasis on having a broad social focus. It introduces the important theme that wider social factors influence our work within social work, and that people are not simply dependent on their individual characteristics – they are influenced by social factors. Our work as social workers becomes more effective on considering the impact that these social factors have on the lives of those individuals and communities with whom we work.

Alongside accepting the importance of social factors, we also have to take into consideration the significance of individuals and how they influence the social world. This theme is explored in the second main chapter of the book, Chapter 3. The focus on individuals within society has been made famous by the German sociologist Max Weber. The understanding of individual perceptions can also be traced back to the philosophy of Immanuel Kant with his ‘Copernican revolution of thought’ that considers micro as opposed to macro questions. Individual perceptions are at the centre of interactionism. This concept is analysed by reflecting on the strengths and weaknesses of approaches that focus on individuals. The content of Chapter 3 then applies interactionism to social work. In Chapter 3, it is explained how policies that emphasise ‘the rights of individuals’ and ‘personal responsibility’ can be linked back to interactionism. A media perception of social work in the UK portrays social workers as being ‘beyond reality’. The emphasis on the importance of individuals is beneficial because this complements explanations that are based on macro social factors. An advantage of interactionism rests with the exploration of individual factors. This sociological perspective identifies that there are individual circumstances influencing social problems and challenges. By studying interactionism, we become more aware of the nature of these challenges.

Chapter 4 considers the rationale behind Marxist understandings of the social world with their emphasis on the importance of the ‘means of production’. The chapter outlines the complexity of classical Marxist and neo-Marxist understandings of the social world. The content presents an analysis of what has come to be known as ‘conflict theory’. Marxism is then analysed by reflecting on its ideological and practical strengths and weaknesses, and this analysis is applied to social work by considering the advantages and disadvantages for social work of Marxist understandings of society. Many social problems are rooted in economic causes, and the negative consequences of poverty in communities can lead to all sorts of challenges for social workers. Marx recommends the creation of an egalitarian society. In this chapter, we consider whether or not such a social system will produce a world where social work is less necessary than in a capitalist social order.

Once the three sociological theories have been introduced, analysed and appraised, the content of the book moves on to reflect on key social groups with whom social workers engage. In Chapter 5, the concept of childhood is explored by considering sociological perceptions of childhood. The experience of childhood is considered through our three key sociological lenses (functionalism, interactionism and conflict theory). The chapter draws on cross-cultural comparisons of childhood in order to reveal the complexity of understandings of childhood in the human world. It is suggested that understanding the social creation of ‘childhood’ enables social workers to become reflexive. Concepts of childhood that have previously been regarded as being ‘fixed’ can be challenged and viewed differently.

Chapter 6 explores the sociological understandings of learning disabilities. The social, personal and economic consequences of learning disabilities are considered in the chapter. The merits of viewing learning disabilities as a form of social creation are outlined for social workers. Awareness of the sociology of learning disabilities enables social workers to challenge innate, fixed perceptions of learning disabilities as innate. The chapter reveals how inclusivity has become a key part of our approach to learning disabilities in the UK. This situation is produced through a combination of social, individual and economic factors that have influenced professional practice with learning disabilities in the UK. In exploring the social construction of learning disabilities, our practice can be enhanced as social workers.

The creation of ‘mental illness’ is explored in Chapter 7 by juxtaposing traditional and scientific definitions. The chapter draws on the work of Michel Foucault by considering that understandings of mental illness in time and space define it. There is no fixed consistent understanding of mental illness. Traditional societies can interpret mental illness as a form of divine (or diabolical) possession. Likewise, late modern societies can understand mental illness in a scientific or Hippocratic way. In the chapter, this social creation of mental illness is applied to social work. This blending together of functionalist, interactionist and conflict theorist understandings of mental illness reinforces the importance of applying combined theoretical perspectives in helping to understand the nature of the social work.

The final main chapter, Chapter 8, explores the social creation of old age. The perceived social benefits of older people vary according to cultural contexts. Traditional societies may associate old age with ‘wisdom’ and ‘advantages’ for society. Economic interpretations of ‘age’ may regard the older population as a ‘drain on resources’. These differing understandings are social creations. The chapter explores the social conceptualisation of old age and its consequences for social work today.

Book Philosophy

The book reflects on the application of sociology to social work. In achieving this objective, each chapter has a particular structure so that the reader is guided through the content. When I teach academic modules, I like to structure the teaching sessions in a particular way. After introducing content, I enable the learners to analyse the material we are studying. When we analyse, we assess the strengths and weaknesses of key concepts. After identifying the central themes within each chapter, analysis is performed through reflecting on the strengths and weaknesses of the concepts that have been introduced. This analysis is supported with academic referencing. The final part of each chapter provides an overall appraisal of the concept. In appraising concepts, we assess the overall merits of the concept and make a summative judgement about its applicability. In order to provide overall synthesis of concepts, I like to provide the learners with some follow-up reading material. To exemplify how this works through the book, let us consider a social phenomenon that is related to sociology, social work and pedagogy: learning preferences. This learning initiative has interested academics since the turn of the century. The idea goes back to the work of a psychologist called Howard Gardner. It is proposed that there are many different ways of learning and that there are ‘multiple intelligences’. Gardner identifies eight particular examples of intelligence (linguistic, mathematical, kinaesthetic, musical, natural, interpersonal, intrapersonal and visual intelligence). The sociological interest in this concept is revealed if we consider the social implications of Gardner’s work for the academic curriculum. Gardner reveals that a narrow focus on numeracy and literacy prevents us from developing other forms of intelligence. A sociologist would be interested in how this produces consequences for social learning. A social worker would be interested in the consequences for children if the curriculum emphasis is placed on a narrow range of subjects. We could argue that those children who are excluded from school are less likely to be excluded if the curriculum is broadened to include other forms of intelligence. Why should visual intelligence and art be regarded as being less important than English, maths and science?

If I was teaching this topic, I would begin by contacting my students with some preliminary reading. I have recently written a blog for the British Educational Research Association (BERA), in which I reflect on the connection between economic structures and achievement levels in literacy. This is a way of introducing the students to the idea that our curriculum is influenced by a range of complex factors. In the formal teaching session, I would begin by identifying who Gardner is and what his ideas about multiple intelligences are. In the second part of the session, I would ask the students to analyse the strengths and weaknesses of the concept of multiple intelligences. A strength of Gardner’s work is the realisation that there are a number of talents that need nurturing in learners. Any social worker who works with children with complex needs will support the idea of having as broad a curriculum as possible. A weakness of the Gardner argument is, however, the lack of intellectual rigour in the concept of multiple intelligences. Why eight forms of intelligence? Why not nine or ten or fifty and so on?! The final part of the teaching session, attempts at getting the students to make an overall judgement about the applicability of the concept of multiple intelligences. This ultimate judgement forms the basis of appraising content. At the end of the teaching session, I like to leave the students with some supportive reading about the topic. In the example that I have just presented, I use the comprehensive research study on learning preferences completed by Coffield et al. (2004).

The above example reveals the philosophy underpinning each chapter in this book: the content is introduced; analysis of central aspects of the concept ensues through consideration of its strengths and weaknesses; the appraisal assesses the overall merit of the idea. The final part of each chapter points the readers to supporting reading in order to consolidate further the learning process.

Key Influences

In the book, I have been especially influenced by the philosophy of Kant and his argument that individuals understand the world they are in by drawing on their own unique interpretation of social phenomena. This makes me especially interested in the interpretations we all have of the social world. Ellingson (2009) uses the term ‘crystallisation’ in illuminating the idea that we are in the world and making sense of it. Just as the light passes through a crystal and transforms our understanding of light, so, too, do we make reality of the social world. In considering functionalism, interactionism and conflict theory, our social work practice can be enriched. Of course, sociology is a rich intellectual subject that is made up of a range of models of thought. The obvious question is: ‘Why focus on three perspectives?’ My answer is that the other perspectives in sociology are a hybrid of functionalism, interactionism and conflict theory. My other answer is that it is important to be able to understand what is in a book like this. I want the readers to be able to say that they understand what is in each chapter. By simplifying the focus to three key sociological perspectives, I am confident that you will enjoy the content in the subsequent chapters.

Chapter 2 Functionalism and social work

Introduction

This chapter outlines how functionalism is useful for social workers. The chapter begins by describing what functionalism is and how it is applied to social work. Functionalism is then analysed by reflecting on its strengths and weaknesses. Functionalism is a paradigm or model of thought and, as such, it has academic strengths and weaknesses. To demonstrate academic skills, an overall appraisal of functionalism is given. Consideration is then given to how functionalism can be applied to our work with key groups of individuals. We explore how to apply functionalism to children, those with mental health needs or learning disabilities, and older people.

What is functionalism?

Functionalist sociologists, including Émile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons, may be portrayed as perceiving social groups to be more important than individuals (Ingleby 2013). Functionalism explores how social institutions (for example, ‘the family’ and ‘the health system’) work to make social groups func...