Teaching Writing for Academic Purposes to Multilingual Students

Instructional Approaches

John Bitchener, Neomy Storch, Rosemary Wette, John Bitchener, Neomy Storch, Rosemary Wette

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2017
• ISBN:
  9781351979740
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Lingue e linguistica
• Subtopic: Lingua inglese

Examining what is involved in learning to write for academic purposes from a variety of perspectives, this book focuses in particular on issues related to academic writing instruction in diverse contexts, both geographical and disciplinary. Informed by current theory and research, leading experts in the field explain and illustrate instructional programs, tasks, and activities that help L2/multilingual writers develop knowledge of different genres, disciplinary expectations, and expertise in applying what they have learned in both educational and professional contexts.

1

INTRODUCTION

John Bitchener, Neomy Storch and Rosemary Wette

Teaching multilingual students how to write for academic purposes is an area of interest to both teachers and researchers across the globe as, increasingly, students are studying in universities where their mother tongue is not the language of instruction or communication. As a result, a large number of students are now studying in English-speaking contexts where the academic writing expectations are different to those in contexts where they have previously studied, and English for academic purposes (EAP) teachers and instructors/advisers are needed to help them to cope with the challenges of this situation. Teacher training, both pre-service qualifications and in-service courses, is essential so that teachers can make informed decisions about the best instructional approaches to employ in their classes. These qualifications and courses draw on the findings of research and best pedagogical practice as reported in journal articles and book chapters.

In view of the current and growing importance of EAP writing instruction, it is perhaps surprising that relatively few edited collections explore the variety of institutional and socio-cultural contexts in which EAP writing instruction is currently offered. These range from primary to tertiary education in public and private institutions, and from contexts where English is embedded, to those where it is widely used, to contexts where English is not usually spoken outside the classroom. English is taught by a variety of teachers who are both native and non-native speakers of the language with different qualifications, experience and levels of proficiency to classes of different sizes, and to learners whose age, proficiency levels, disciplinary interests and type or strength of motivation also differ. The volume addresses this diversity by providing overviews of writing in three different geographic contexts, discussion of issues associated with genre-based approaches, and task options for specific learners and classroom contexts, as well as issues in academic language development, including written corrective feedback.

This book is of potential interest to a diverse group of readers. These readers include students undertaking graduate courses in applied linguistics and teacher education, course administrators, experienced teachers of EAP writing in different educational contexts, supervisors and established scholars in the field. For all these readers, the book has many attractive features: the breadth of topics covered, the practice-based issues that are discussed, and the accessibility of its writing style. For graduate students in Applied Linguistics and Education courses, this book would be an invaluable supplementary text. The chapters provide not only concrete examples of applied research but also identify topics related to EAP writing that require additional investigation. For experienced teachers, supervisors and administrators, the book would be a useful source book, providing examples of the kind of challenges in the design and implementation of EAP instruction for specific cohorts of L2 writers, and suggestions on how these challenges can be overcome.

A key strength of the field of EAP writing is that, by and large, research is strongly oriented to practice, and the chapters in this volume provide evidence of this close connection. Contributing authors are all highly experienced teachers as well as researchers, and are therefore able to bridge the theory-practice divide as they draw on current scholarship and research findings to identify issues of current importance in the field, and make practical suggestions for teaching and learning strategies to meet the needs of particular groups of learners.

Between the Introduction and the Epilogue, the chapters are grouped into three parts, each one exploring an important theme in learning to write for academic purposes. They are ordered to progress from EAP courses in university degree programs, to instruction in specific EAP knowledge and skills, and then to future research and scholarship.

In Part I, EAP Courses in University Degree Programs (Chapters 2, 3 and 4 by Paltridge, Hyland and Silva), the development of multidisciplinary and discipline-specific EAP courses at undergraduate and postgraduate levels in Australia, Hong Kong and the United States is described, and curriculum and methodological choices are explained. In Part II, Instruction in Specific EAP Knowledge and Skills, the seven chapters are organized in three sub-sections: issues in academic genre-based instruction (Chapters 5, 6 and 7 by Tardy, Bitchener and Wette); particular instructional tasks and activities (Chapters 8 and 9 by Hammond and Storch); and proactive and reactive approaches to academic language development (Chapters 10 and 11 by Ferris and Lee). In Part III, Future Research in EAP, the single chapter (Chapter 12, by Manchón) provides an overview of pedagogically oriented research agendas for the years ahead. The book concludes with an Epilogue (Chapter 13, by Casanave). What follows is a summary of each chapter providing a more detailed outline of the content and organization of the book.

In Chapter 2, Paltridge draws on the work of EAP and academic literacies to argue that writing in the academy requires a deep awareness of the complex relationship between language and the social and cultural context in which a text resides. This context shapes, for example, the values attached to a text as well as to readers’ expectations. Thus, academic writing classes need to focus on both text and context, on the language and discourse features of a text as well as on the literacy expectations of the academy. Paltridge then describes three courses taught at his university: for undergraduate, postgraduate (MA) and doctoral students. The overriding aim of the courses is to bring together the theory and practice of writing in an academic context. He provides a detailed description of the courses in terms of the topics covered and the kind of activities that students are required to complete. Thus, the chapter provides invaluable advice to course designers and teachers of EAP writing.

In Chapter 3, Hyland gives an account of the introduction of disciplinary-specific EAP courses at the University of Hong Kong, where, in 2012, a radical restructuring of tuition resulted in a 3-year degree being replaced with a 4-year Bachelor degree. Students’ final year of schooling therefore became their first year of university study. The need for academic writing instruction at university was acknowledged, and a decision was made to require all incoming students to complete a Core University English (CUE) course, with an additional requirement to complete a discipline-specific course before graduation. The Year 1 CUE course draws students’ attention to the importance of accuracy, clarity, coherence, cautious claiming and the establishment of a clear line of thought or argument. English in the Discipline (ED) courses are taken in either Year 2, 3 or 4, and Hyland describes how ED courses were developed across a range of subject areas. He also presents research findings that show clear disciplinary differences in particular genre features: in the way authorial identity is constructed, in the text types students need to produce, and in the way feedback responses are delivered. The chapter ends by reiterating the value of academic writing instruction that is embedded in particular disciplinary contexts and communities.

In Chapter 4, Silva traces the long-term development of a multi-disciplinary EAP writing program at Purdue University in the United States. He begins with a description of this institutional context and the L2 writing provision it offers, as well as his long-standing involvement with the program. He then profiles the graduate students who teach undergraduate writing courses, and the specialized training they are required to complete before taking on ESL Writing courses. In line with its main aim of documenting this course as an example of effective practice, the chapter outlines its syllabus and the five written assignments that students are required to produce: an autobiographical account, and a topic of personal interest that will be the focus of the four remaining assignments (proposal, synthesis paper, interview report and argument essay). Each assignment is drafted in three stages, with feedback from peers and the instructor at each stage. Classroom methodologies include explicit instruction, individual as well as small group conferencing and individual writing tasks. Silva ends by conceding that this program is privileged in that it is very securely established and well-resourced, but hopes, nevertheless, that readers will find information in the chapter useful in their own teaching contexts.

In Chapter 5, Tardy considers challenges of genre instruction in the academic writing classroom that will be of interest to a wide readership, including, of course, those involved in second language writing teacher education. She explains that, while attempting to not teach genres as prescriptive formulas or templates, teachers sometimes report how challenging they find it to implement a genre approach that recognizes its dynamic and social characteristics. Tardy adds that, because this can be the case for more experienced teachers, it may be even more of an issue for novice teachers. Thus, the aim of the chapter is to explore teachers’ perspectives on implementing genre approaches in their academic writing classrooms, to identify key challenges and consider how teacher education might minimize or address the challenges. Based on an in-progress study of US writing teachers in early undergraduate writing classes, Tardy identifies some of the key obstacles they face in teaching with genre before presenting a number of implications for supporting not only this cohort but also those in other contexts.

In Chapter 6, Bitchener focuses on the creation of argument in the literature review of a doctoral dissertation as one example of an academic part-genre that L2 writers can sometimes struggle with. He begins with a discussion of the knowledge and skills that writers need in order to create an argument, the reasons L2 writers may encounter issues with argument creation and some of the pedagogical approaches that have been recommended to help students overcome the difficulties they may experience. Then, in the second part of the chapter, he describes a seven-stage scaffolded approach that can assist L2 writers develop a focused and coherent argument for one theoretical unit or section of a literature review. Bitchener explains that this approach can also be applied to other part-genres of a doctoral dissertation and to other academic genres that draw upon a wide range of literature. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the many advantages of using this approach and with suggestions about who, in particular, might benefit from the approach.

In Chapter 7, Wette begins with an outline of research and scholarship on writing using sources to date, and the shift in attention in recent years from issues of legitimacy to instruction and skill development. Writing using sources is a multi-faceted skill that includes analytic and synthetic reading skills, thinking skills to make decisions about what to cite and what type of citation to use and writing skills that draw on the students’ knowledge of appropriate grammar and vocabulary. The chapter describes the findings of two studies with novice and post-novice students in order to comment further on skill components that appear to be readily learned, as well as those that are often problematic. It then proposes a trajectory of skill development in order to show the number and variety of abilities that need to be developed, and a possible learning sequence. The final section presents practical information in the form of suggested course content and instructional tasks for learners at different levels of capability. It concludes by stating the need for EAP courses to provide sustained, explicit instruction, a range of practice tasks and constructive feedback to assist students towards proficiency in this essential, complex academic literacy skill.

In Chapter 8, Hammond focuses on effective academic literacy instruction of English as an additional language (EAL) students in mainstream junior high school classes. She argues that more effective literacy instruction for EAL (and indeed all students) requires raising teachers’ knowledge about language and literacy and specifically their understanding of the notion of “literate talk.” Hammond begins with an explanation of what literate talk means, and why EAL learners need explicit support to be able to engage in such talk. This discussion draws heavily on systemic functional linguistics, but does so in a very accessible way. Hammond then describes a professional development program which involved teachers in applying the notion of literate talk to task analysis. Teachers analyzed tasks used in science classes for the nature of the language they require and mapped these tasks on a continuum from most spoken to most written language. Hammond suggests that the insights teachers gain from such analysis and reflection can be applied to the design of more effective writing class activities across the disciplines.

In Chapter 9, Storch discusses how best to implement collaborative writing activities. She begins by providing a rationale for such activities in EAP classes and argues that collaborative writing tasks can serve twin goals: train learners for the kind of writing they are likely to encounter outside the language classroom and provide opportunities for learners to deliberate about how to express their ideas. The chapter then focuses on three key decisions that EAP teachers need to make in order to implement successful collaborative writing activities, in the face-to-face or computer-mediated environment (e.g., Wikis). These decisions revolve around choice of writing task, the optimal grouping of students and how to assess such activities. Storch recommends that in making these decisions teachers need to consider their learners’ L2 proficiency and the goals of the EAP writing class (language learning vs. learning to write for professional and academic purposes). The discussion of these decisions draws not only on a growing body of research, but also on Storch’s own experience of implementing collaborative writing with her EAP students.

In Chapter 10, Ferris considers the what and how of instruction that seeks to facilitate second language writers academic language development. Acknowledging the extensive literature on L2 development from a more reactive perspective, namely, corrective feedback, she argues in this chapter for a more proactive approach as well, especially for helping writers acquire the types of complex language that may enable them to better realize their academic and professional purposes. The aim of the chapter, then, is to provide teachers with practical strategies for addressing language with their EAP students in ways that are authentic and fully integrated with other classroom goals and activities so that students can be prepared to communicate successfully for a range of academic purposes. Thus, Ferris discusses principles that teachers can use to select lexical and syntactic structures for their classes and ways in which they can teach them so as to avoid their being taught as lists or as items in decontextualized grammar lessons. The accessibility of insights provided in this chapter will be welcomed by busy teachers.

In Chapter 11, Lee discusses the perennial question of how teachers can provide effective written corrective feedback (WCF) but at the same time make this task manageable. The chapter deals specifically with two alternative strategies for the provision of WCF: comprehensive versus targeted WCF. Lee begins with defining these two alternative strategies to feedback provision, and then critically reviews the extant body of research to discuss the pedagogical advantages and disadvantages of the two alternatives. She concludes that, since this body of research has not shown conclusively which is the most effective form of WCF, the best approach is for teachers to adopt a strategy that takes into consideration the learners’ proficiency level and the nature of the errors, or a middle position that combines both strategies. Lee also provides a comprehensive list of principles that should guide the selection of targeted forms for circumstances where targeted WCF is appropriate. She concludes the chapter by outlining areas that require additional investigation. Thus, the chapter has something valuable to offer to both L2 writing teachers and researchers.

In Chapter 12, Manchón explores several dimensions of the interaction between language and writing in academic settings from both retrospective and forward-looking perspectives. Focusing on the multi-faceted and situated nature of this interaction, she begins her discussion with a consideration of the way in which the linguistic component of L2 academic literacies has featured in recent disciplinary contributions. This leads to an overview of the main strands of research on the role of language in the learning and teaching of a second language in diverse academic contexts where the distinction is made between research focusing on texts and research focusing on the writer. The ensuing detailed analysis of contributions centered on writers dominates the second part of the chapter and leads to a series of pedagogical implications arising from the issues raised and the theoretical and empirical research avenues suggested.

The epilogue by Casanave provides a summary of the key themes covered in this book. In summarizing these themes, she interweaves the advice...