Social Research Methods

Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches

Sigmund Grønmo

• Publisher: SAGE Publications Ltd
• Year: 2019
• ISBN:
  9781526485564
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Sozialwissenschaften
• Subtopic: Wissenschaftliche Forschung & Methodik

Structured around one of the concepts students struggle with the most—the research question—this book begins with how to understand the role of good questions before demonstrating how questions underpin good research designs and how social research can be framed as asking and answering questions. Perfect for undergraduate students new to methods, it teaches students how qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods research can be used to answer these questions. "An incredibly resourceful book that contains a forensic insight into social research methods, offering the full range of contemporary approaches. Students will find particular value in the accessibility and detail of the text. Each chapter provides a set of learning outcomes, study questions and further reading." - Dr Ruth McAreavey, Newcastle University

Supported by a website that maps online resources to key stages of the learning process, it helps students:

-Understand the scientific method

-Learn the vocabulary of social science research

-Plan and design research

-Practice with and interpret data

-Explore social science literature and improve assignments with good citations

-Improve critical thinking. Extensive visualizations, overviews, examples, exercises, and other learning features, make this the perfect introductory text to build confidence and best practice around research methods.

Part I Researching society

Online resources

The online resources are here to help with the basics of researching society!

Visit https://study.sagepub.com/gronmo to access videos, case studies, key term definitions, and critical thinking exercises that will help you learn more about the foundations of social research methods and establishing ethical research.

1 How and why we study society

• Learning objectives 4
• Science on society 4
• Why is social research important? 4
• Why is it useful to study social research methods? 5
• Dynamics of bureaucracy: Example of a social science study 6
  • Background and purpose of the study 6
  • How the study was implemented 7
  • Results and importance of the study 7
• What is social science? 8
• Social science and society 9
  • Participants and observers 9
  • Debate about positivism 10
• Qualitative and quantitative studies 11
• Facts and values 14
  • Empirical and normative studies 14
  • Do facts exist? 14
  • Classical discussions of the relationship between facts and values 15
  • Basic principles for social science: Ontology, epistemology and methodology 16
• Social science as a process: The organization of this book 18
  • Researching society 18
  • Designing social research 19
  • Data collection and data quality 20
  • Data analysis 21
  • Asking and answering questions in social science 22
  • Writing and presenting research 23
  • Major elements in the research process 23
• Chapter highlights 24
• Research examples 24
• Student exercises and questions 25
• Recommended literature 25

Learning objectives

This chapter provides knowledge about the essential features of social science and its relationship to society, as well as some fundamental methodological issues and principles in social science.

The chapter will teach you about

• how social phenomena can be examined by means of different methods
• the difference between qualitative and quantitative data
• the researcher’s roles as participant and observer
• the relationship between facts and values in social science
• debates on fundamental issues in social science, including positivism and postmodernism
• basic principles for social science, including the principle of truth as a primary value.

Science on society

Social science is based on systematic research about phenomena and conditions in society. Social science consists of the methods that are developed and applied in this research, as well as the knowledge and theories that are the results of the research. This book is focused on social research methods. Different methods will be presented and discussed, and in order to show how these methods have been used, the book will also provide examples of knowledge and theories about society that are based on various research designs.

The selection of methods in social research is related to knowledge development and theoretical perspectives. In order to develop interesting knowledge and theories, it is necessary to use appropriate and adequate research methods. The selection of methods for a particular study depends on the kinds of social phenomena that are examined and the kinds of social theories that are emphasized in the study.

This introductory chapter starts with discussions of why social research is important, and why it is useful to study social research methods. Then, an example of a social science study is presented. The example shows how different methods can be used to examine dynamic processes in bureaucracies. The next section presents a more general clarification of what social science is. Then, after a discussion of the relationship between social science and society, and the distinction between qualitative and quantitative data, the relationship between facts and values is examined. Finally, the chapter presents an overview of how the book is organized.

Why is social research important?

Like other scientific fields, social science is valuable in itself, as a part of the total culture in society, and it is important in a more instrumental sense, for the development of different social activities and for society at large.

Social science has been important for our identity and self-understanding, and for our understanding of interpersonal relations and society as a whole. Cultural, social, political and economic conditions are described and discussed by means of concepts and ways of thinking that have been developed within social science. Policies, strategies and decisions in different areas are often based on knowledge and theories from social science.

On the other hand, there are many policies, strategies and decisions in business, administration and politics that are not based on insight and understanding from social science. Social science also presents critical perspectives on many conditions and trends in society. Moreover, social science analyses and theories may be ambiguous and unclear as a basis for decisions in specific cases. Such studies will often problematize conditions in society, rather than suggesting simple advice for actions or interventions. Typically, this reflects the fact that social conditions are both complex and complicated. Thus, social science is not always able to present clear and definitive conclusions. In any event, however, it may contribute to more insight and knowledge regarding different aspects of specific cases as well as social life in general.

Furthermore, different social science studies may present quite different analyses and interpretations of the same social phenomena. Different studies may emphasize different research questions, refer to different theories, apply different methods and end up with different conclusions. These differences are related to the great diversity in social science perspectives. However, even such differences between studies may be important and useful, since they demonstrate how social phenomena and conditions can be understood and interpreted in different ways, depending on the viewpoints of the researchers, the perspectives in the studies, and the premises for the conclusions. Thus, social science may contribute to informed, knowledge-based and rational public debates on various issues.

For example, perspectives, insights and knowledge from social science are very important for understanding and coping with the major global challenges in our time. One of these challenges refers to environmental issues, sustainable development and climate change. Whereas natural science examines such phenomena as global warming and how it is affected by emissions of carbon dioxide and other gases, social science provides knowledge about the human behaviour, social structures, economic conditions and political processes that lead to gas emissions and create other environmental problems. Social research can also describe and explain the consequences of climate change for people’s living conditions in various parts of the world. Furthermore, social science is an important basis for discussing what kinds of action would be needed to reduce or prevent environmental problems that lead to global warming and global changes.

Why is it useful to study social research methods?

There are a number of reasons for studying social research methods. The most obvious reason is that such methods are used in all kinds of social science studies, and that knowledge about methods is necessary for doing social research.

Social science students have to carry out their own research. In the early stages of their studies, students have to do small and simple research tasks in different types of exercises, and later they have to write a master’s thesis and perhaps a PhD dissertation. Many university candidates with a social science degree will develop a career in research at a university or a research institute. In addition, social science graduates who work in non-academic institutions, such as business or public agencies, are often asked to write reports or carry out various types of studies on social phenomena.

In all these types of studies, it is necessary to use social research methods. Thus, it is important to study social research methods:

• Learning about the whole repertoire of available methods, the main features of each method, and the major differences between methods, is an important basis for choosing the most adequate method for a particular research task or a specific research question.
• Knowledge about the wide variety of methods for collecting and analysing data is essential for understanding the whole research process in different types of studies.
• Skills in using different methods are necessary for ensuring the quality and ethical basis of the research that is carried out.

Learning about social research methods is not only necessary for carrying out research. It is also very useful for assessing the quality and significance of social research that has been conducted by other students or researchers. Knowledge about different methods is important for understanding the content of a research report or information about a study that is presented in the media or at conferences. Our methodological insight enables us to

• assess the quality of the research
• understand the limitations of the study and its findings and conclusions
• compare the study with other relevant studies based on different methods.

Furthermore, studying social research methods is not only useful for social scientists in their professional roles, when they use their social science skills in their work. Knowing about different methods may also be very valuable for all citizens, and for our non-professional participation in social life. Insight into social research methods may be useful if we participate in public debates, in political work, or in other voluntary activities. Learning about social research methods is useful for

• knowing how to seek and find information about phenomena and conditions in society
• developing a systematic way of comparing information from different sources
• making critical evaluations of different types of information.

Dynamics of bureaucracy: Example of a social science study

A very good example of a social science study is Peter M. Blau’s study of bureaucracies (Blau, 1963). The purpose of presenting this example is to show how particular phenomena in society can be examined by means of different social research methods, how different methods can shed light on different aspects of the phenomena, and how combinations of different methods can provide holistic insight or comprehensive knowledge about the phenomena that are examined. This example will be referred to in several chapters in this book.

Background and purpose of the study

Bureaucracies are a central and well-known feature of modern society. Bureaucratic organizations are common in both public administration and private business. Research about bureaucratic systems and bureaucratic activity is important within several disciplines in social science. Modern bureaucracies were analysed by Max Weber (1864–1920), who was one of the founders of social science. In particular, he was interested in how typical bureaucracies are structured and organized, and he focused on the characteristic features of bureaucratic activity in its most pure form, as an ‘ideal type’ (Weber, 2013).

With reference to Weber’s analysis, Peter M. Blau (1963) carried out a study of activities and relations in public bureaucracies in the USA in the late 1940s. The report from his studies was presented in 1952, as Blau’s PhD dissertation at Columbia University in New York, where he worked together with the well-known sociologist Robert Merton (1910–2003).

Weber emphasized studies of the stable structural features of bureaucracies as well as the general and enduring characteristics of bureaucratic activity. Blau was more interested in the dynamic aspects of bureaucracies. His purpose was to examine processes, developments and organizational change within public bureaucracies.

Blau focused on the daily activities of two selected government agencies, as well as the interpersonal relations among the employees of these agencies. One of the selected agencies was a public employment agency in an eastern US state.

The other was a department in a US federal enforcement agency, which was responsible for the implementation of two particular federal laws. Blau referred to each agency as a case in his study, and he described his study as a case study of the two agencies.

How the study was implemented

In both agencies, Blau conducted informal conversations, or unstructured interviews, with the administrative leaders of the agency, and he reviewed instructions, rules and other important documents in the agency. Based on this material, he selected one of the departments in each agency for more thorough investigations. Blau worked as an employee in the department for three months. In this fieldwork period, he observed officials in the office, joined them on their field visits and had lunch with them, and took part in informal interaction and social gatherings with the officials. At the same time he carried out more systematic collection of information, based on observation of activities in the department, interviews with colleagues and studies of documents and other available materials. All this information was described in field notes. Thus, in his fieldwork, Blau was both a participant in the department and an observer of the actors and activities within the department. This approach of combining participation and observation is called participant observation.

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