Koromu (Kesawai)

Grammar and Information Structure of a New Guinea Language

Carol Priestley

• Publisher: De Gruyter Mouton
• Year: 2019
• ISBN:
  9781501510229
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Languages & Linguistics
• Subtopic: Languages
• Index: Languages & Linguistics

This book is a grammatical description of Koromu (or Kesawai), an endangered and previously undescribed language in Papua New Guinea's Ramu Valley. Koromu belongs to the Madang subgroup of the putative Trans New Guinea family. The grammar covers the structures of the language, with an emphasis on information structure. Geographic, linguistic, social and historical setting are described as well as phonology and morphophonology. The book examines the morphosyntactic structures of the language, covering basic clause structure, word classes, phrase structures and structures of spatial reference, verbal morphology, serial verb constructions, experiencer object constructions and the various constructions of clause combining (clause chaining, complement clauses, adverbial and relative clauses). Chapters also deal with noun phrase (non)realisation and morphological signaling of prominence and show how links and tails are encoded grammatically. Appendices contain texts and a wordlist.

1 Introduction: Linguistic, sociolinguistic, ethnographic and historical contexts

1.1 Aims and background

This book is a detailed, analytical description of Koromu, a Rai Coast language of the Madang group of the Trans New Guinea family spoken in Kesawai 1 and 2, Waimeripa, Autopa, Ariheti, Saweti, Weisa and Korike lands in southeast Madang Province, Papua New Guinea. The grammatical description includes in-depth studies of key typological topics in the grammar and meaning of serial verb and nominal constructions, clause chains and clause combining. The book also provides two chapters on the interaction between grammar, information structure and reference tracking with descriptions of noun phrase realization, omission and prominence marking and of background or topic-like elements in the sentence and discourse. The whole work is enriched by insights on daily life and cultural practices through life experience, observation, participation and record-keeping while living in a Koromu village from 1975 to 1976, 1978 to 1980 and throughout 1986, as well as during linguistic fieldwork in 2000 and 2004, and other visits or fieldwork in 1991, 1997, 2010, 2012 and 2015 (cf.§1.7). Many of the texts relate to events the author observed and/or participated in, from everyday activities, such as raising crops and finding water, to major life events, such as birth, marriage, sickness and death. It is hoped that this description will form the basis for materials on Koromu grammar that can be more readily accessed by community members.

The introductory chapter provides in-depth information on the people, language and location in sections on population and geographical setting (§1.2), linguistic setting (§1.3), social and territorial organization (§1.4), ethnography (§1.5), past and present interactions with other language groups (§1.6), history of research on Koromu and neighbouring languages (§1.7), sources and content of texts (§1.8) and salient features of the grammar (§1.9).

1.2 Population and geographical setting

Koromu is spoken by approximately 600 to 700 people who live in the Usino-Bundi District in southeast Madang Province (Map 1.1, Hanson, Allen, Bourke and ­McCarthy 2001: 189‒203). In the 2000 census the Kesawai and Ariheti wards, in which the Koromu-speaking communities are located, had a combined population of 882. Immigrant settlers from other parts of Papua New Guinea are included. In 2011 the combined figures for these wards in Usino-Bundi District indicate an overall ­population growth from 40,079 in 2000 to 60,807 in 2011, mirroring the overall population growth in the country (Papua New Guinea National Statistical Office 2013). In addition to greater life expectancy in childhood, the Kesawai and Ariheti Wards have a steadily increasing number of settlers who usually do not speak local languages. Many local young people who interact with the settlers are not fluent in their heritage languages (cf. §1.6.3). Thus the 2011 census results for the Kesawai and Ariheti wards cannot accurately represent the numbers of Koromu speakers.

Map 1.1: Location of Koromu.

Koromu-speaking villages and settlements are located at about 170 to 220 metres above sea level north and south of the Ramu River (Enae in Koromu). The Ramu flows southeast to northwest in a large valley between high ­mountains. To the northeast are the Finisterre Ranges which rise to 1400 to 3300 metres above sea level, while to the southwest are the high peaks of the Bismarck Ranges. The southern part of Koromu land is in the foothills of Mt. Otto (3540 metres) and Mt. Helwig (2739 metres). Papua New Guinea’s highest mountain, Mt. Wilhelm (4509 metres), can be seen along the valley to the west.

Many rivers and streams flow out of the mountains and across the river flats to join the Ramu River. In Koromu country the Ramu River has numerous braided ­channels spread over a wide area and interspersed with low gravel islands. The pressure of the water flow in some of the channels is very strong, so that fording them is challenging in the dry season and extremely difficult in the wet season. Local people know the river well and are widely respected for their ability to cross it.

Throughout this part of the Ramu Valley there are patches of kunai grass, kangaroo grass, forest and swamp. The sharp-leaved kunai, or sword grass, also covers the steep foothills and some of the mountains to heights of 1000 to 2000 metres. Higher parts of the mountains are forested and there are also clumps of trees along the streams and rivers that flow down to the Ramu River.

North of the Ramu the settlements of Kesawai 1 (also known as Kohuweti and Mauska), Monpea and Kesawai 2 are near the Kohu, Monpea and Pakaia Rivers, respectively. The area is sometimes known generally as Kesawai. South of the Ramu, Waimeripa is near to the Ramu River, Autopa is a little to the west near the Oija River and Korike is further west and downstream of Autopa near the Marea River. Ariheti is almost due south of Waimeripa, Saweti is south of Autopa and the small settlements of Weisa are in the foothills along the Aimi River branch of the Marea/Oru-Rumaka River (see Map 1.2).

The settlements of Kesawai 1, Kesawai 2 and Monpea are near the road that connects the provincial capital of Madang (about 100 kilometres to the northwest) with the Highlands Highway to the southeast and its access to Lae, Goroka and other townships. This road also links the area with the local government centre at Walium to the northwest, before it reaches Madang, and the small township of Ramu Sugar before it reaches the Highlands Highway to the southeast. The following maps introduce key places. The dramatic topography of the area can also be seen in the photos and topographical maps such as Sheet 8086 Dumpu (Royal Australian Survey Corps 1976).

Map 1.2: Koromu villages and settlements.

1.3 The linguistic setting

1.3.1 Linguistic affiliations

The approximately 1200 languages of the region that extends from Timor and Halmahera in the west, through New Guinea to the Solomons in the east, are usually divided into the languages of the Austronesian language family and “a number of distinct language groupings, called non-Austronesian” (or Papuan) for which no “genetic commonality is presupposed” (Foley 2000: 358). Pawley ­estimates that there are 700‒800 Papuan languages (2005: 68) and Ross that there are perhaps 800 (2005: 15). Based on currently available data, they are divided into 20 families and about a dozen isolates (Foley 2000; Ross 2005, 2006). The largest family is Trans New Guinea (TNG) with around 400 languages.

Within the TNG family “the largest well-defined branch” is the Madang group with about 100 languages in the linguistically diverse Madang Province (Pawley 2006a: 1). In Z’graggen (1975, 1980) the tentative subgrouping of this group, referred to as the Madang-Adelbert Range sub-phylum, is based on lexicostatistics and morphosyntactic typology. Since these approaches are often affected by borrowing from one language into another and because paradigms of pronouns are rarely borrowed, Ross (2006: 2) proposes a preliminary revision of Madang subgroups based on shared innovations in pronominal morphemes. Proto Madang is “characterised by the fact that it has replaced the Proto TNG first, second and third person singular pronouns *na, *ŋga and *ya by *ya, *na and *nu respectively” (Ross 2005: 36).

Both Z’graggen and Ross propose a Rai Coast group of languages within the Madang group. These languages are spoken in the coastal lowlands from the Gogol River in the west to almost as far as the Mot River in the east, as well as southwards in the steep-sided valleys of the Finisterre Ranges and in the Ramu Valley. Koromu is one of the southernmost languages of this group. See Map 1.3.

Map 1.3: Koromu & neighbouring languages, based on Z’graggen (1980) & Ross (2006).

In Z’graggen’s sub-grouping of the Rai Coast languages (1975, 1980), Sinsauru (Kou) [snz],¹ Asas (Kou) [asd], Sausi (Wia) [ssj], Kesawai (Koromu) [xes] and Dumpu (Watiwa) [wtf] are in the Evapia language group. However, Ross’s sub-grouping of the Rai Coast languages is quite different. He distinguishes a subgroup of 19 languages, labelled Sub-Rai languages, “characterised by the fact that most of its members have lost *ni ‘2p’ but retained *ta ‘2p’ whereas the rest of the Rai Coast group has done the opposite” (Ross 2006: 17). Koromu, Sausi and Dumpu are part of this Sub-Rai group while Sinsauru and Asas are not.

The members of Ross’s Sub-Rai group geographically closest to Koromu are Sausi and Dumpu. Sausi, the language most like Koromu, is spoken in the Ramu Valley beyond Asas to the northwest. The name Sausi is based on the village name (Z’graggen 1975, 1980, Ross 2005, 2006). The Sausi language has also been called Witi (Locnikar et al 2000) and Wiya (Priestley, Priestley and Priestley 1975‒1979). The Dumpu language, which is also named after the main village, is spoken along the valley to the southeast (Map 1.3). Tauya [tya] and Biyom [bpm] are now assigned to the Rai Coast group (Ross 2006: 13, Pawley 2005: 93) rather than the Adelbert Range languages (Z’graggen 1975, 1980). These languages are the only Sub-Rai languages spoken south of the Ramu River on the lower slopes of the Bismarck Range. They are west of the Koromu villages of Korike and Weisa (see §1.2), beyond swamps, mountains and Isabi-speaking villages (see below). In contrast, Koromu is spoken both north and south of the river. However, since flooding and changes affected the course of the Ramu River in 2003, Sausi villagers use land south of the river as well. The difficult river crossings, swamps and/or steep rocky, mountains form natural barriers to frequent interaction between groups of people.

Based on the pronominal morpheme analysis in Ross (2006: 13), the neighbouring languages of Sinsauru and Asas are Rai Coast but not Sub-Rai languages. Sinsauru is spoken beyond the first mountain range north of Kesawai 1 and 2. However, some children and their guardians live at Sisari, a small village in the foothills above Kesawai 1, during the school week so that the children can attend the Kesawai 1 community school. Asas is about five and a half kilometres along the valley road northwest of Kesawai 1. The Asas people are said to have moved from the mountains to the Ramu Valley in the recent past. Both Asas and Sinsauru people say they speak the same language, Kou, but with some differences (cf. Onken et al 2000). They regard people of Auropa and Baipa to the northeast as Kou people who speak a little differently.

On the slopes of Mt Otto, south-west of the Koromu village of Weisa, there are several Isabi [isa] villages. Z’graggen assigned Isabi to the Brahman group of Madang languages but further research indicates that it is a Kainantu-Gorokan language (Pawley 2006a; Ross 2006: 7). Other Kainantu and Gorokan languages of the Trans New Guinea family are spoken beyond the high southern mountains. Only the Benabena-speaking village of Samiri is located on the north-facing slopes of the Ramu Valley, at the end of an infrequently used and very difficult climb of one or more days above Ariheti. Other Benabena [bef] and Alekano/ Gahuku [gah] villages are beyond, or on top of, the dividing range (see §1.6.1). Thus, the main linguistic boundary between Madang and Gorokan languages corresponds with the vast tract of steep, wild, uninhabited land on the northern slopes of Mt. Otto and Mt. Helwig. East and south of Koromu and Dumpu, along the Ramu Valley, people speak the Austronesian language of Mari [hob], the ­Finisterre-Huon (TNG) languages and the isolated Rai Coast language of Wasembo [gsp].

When research for this book was undertaken, there were published grammars of just two Rai Coast languages, Tauya in the Ramu Valley (MacDonald 1990), and Siroi [ssd] on the Rai Coast (Wells 1979). There was also an unpublished grammar sketch and published paper on coastal Ogea (Erima [eri]) by Colburn (1980, 1984), and Peter Lawrence’s anthropological writings on cargo-cult (1971) and Sumau (Garia) [six] ethnography (1984). Of these, Tauya has some constituents that are similar in form and/or meaning to Koromu dependent verb inflections (see §9.4), phasal and valency-changing verbs (see §10.4 to §10.6) and ablaut (see §2.4.5). In addition, the Siroi irregular ‘give’ verbs and continuative min ‘be’ (Wells 1979, see also Sjaak and Jacqueline van Kleef) resemble Koromu forms. Wordlists of Rai Coast languages can be found in Z’graggen (1980) and there is a body of work by myself on Koromu (see §1.7).

Well-documented languages in other Madang subgroups include Amele [aey] (Roberts 1981, 1987, 1991, 2001), Kalam [kmh] (Lane 2007, Pawley 1966, 1987, 1993, 2006b, Pawley and Bulmer et al. 2012, Pawley et al. 2000), Kobon [kpw] (Davies 1980, 1981, 1985), Usan [wnu] (Reesink 1987, 2014), Anamuxra [imi] (Ingram 2001) and from the perspective of anthropology, Usino [unw] (Conton and Eisler 1976, Conton 1977). There is also research and/or documentation on Nobonob [gaw] (Aeschliman 1992), Sam [snx] (Troolin and Troolin 2005), Pamosu [hih] (Tupper 2014), Mauwake [mhl] (Berghäll 2015), Chini [afi] (Brooks 2016, 2018) and several other Madang languages documented by Daniels (2017). Of the latter the closest to Koromu geographically are Faita/Kursav [faj], Musak/Aisi...