Handbook of Industrial Hydrocarbon Processes

James G. Speight

• Publisher: Gulf Professional Publishing
• Year: 2010
• ISBN:
  9780080942711
• Topic: Technology & Engineering
• Subtopic: Chemical & Biochemical Engineering
• Index: Technology & Engineering

Written by an author with over 38 years of experience in the chemical and petrochemical process industry, this handbook will present an analysis of the process steps used to produce industrial hydrocarbons from various raw materials. It is the first book to offer a thorough analysis of external factors effecting production such as: cost, availability and environmental legislation.

An A-Z list of raw materials and their properties are presented along with a commentary regarding their cost and availability. Specific processing operations described in the book include: distillation, thermal cracking and coking, catalytic methods, hydroprocesses, thermal and catalytic reforming, isomerization, alkylation processes, polymerization processes, solvent processes, water removal, fractionation and acid gas removal.

• Flow diagrams and descriptions of more than 250 leading-edge process technologies
• An analysis of chemical reactions and process steps that are required to produce chemicals from various raw materials
• Properties, availability and environmental impact of various raw materials used in hydrocarbon processing

Chapter 1. Chemistry and Chemical Technology

Contents

1. Introduction2

2. Organic chemistry3

2.1. The chemical bond3

2.2. Bonding in carbon-based systems4

3. Chemical engineering7

3.1. Conservation of mass8

3.2. Conservation of energy9

3.3. Conservation of momentum9

4. Chemical technology9

4.1. Historical aspects10

4.2. Technology and human culture11

5. Hydrocarbons13

5.1. Bonding in hydrocarbons15

5.2. Nomenclature of hydrocarbons16

5.2.1. Alkanes16

5.2.2. Alkenes18

5.2.3. Alkynes19

5.2.4 Cycloalkanes19

5.2.5. Aromatic hydrocarbons20

5.3. Isomers24

6. Non-hydrocarbons25

6.1. Alcohols26

6.2. Ethers27

6.3. Aldehydes27

6.4. Ketones28

6.5. Organic acids28

6.6. Esters28

6.7. Amines29

6.8. Alkyl halides30

6.9. Amides30

7. Properties of hydrocarbons31

7.1. Density33

7.2. Heat of combustion (energy content)34

7.3. Volatility, flammability, and explosive properties35

7.4. Behavior37

1. Introduction

Chemistry (from the Arabic al khymia) is the science of matter and is concerned with the composition, behavior, structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes matter undergoes during chemical reactions. Chemistry is a physical science and is used for the investigation of atoms, molecules, crystals, and other assemblages of matter, whether in isolation or combination, which incorporates the concepts of energy and entropy in relation to the spontaneity or initiation of chemical reactions or chemical processes.

Disciplines within chemistry are traditionally grouped by the type of matter being studied or the kind of study and include (alphabetically): (1) analytical chemistry, which is the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure; (2) biochemistry, which is the study of substances found in biological organisms; (3) inorganic chemistry, which is the study of inorganic matter (inorganic chemicals, such as minerals); (4) organic chemistry, which is the study of organic matter (organic chemicals, such as hydrocarbons); and (5) physical chemistry, which is the study of the energy relations of chemical systems at macro, molecular and sub-molecular scales.

In fact, the history of human culture can be viewed as the progressive development of chemical technology through evolution of the scientific and engineering disciplines in which chemistry and chemical engineering have played major roles in producing a wide variety of industrial chemicals, especially industrial organic chemicals (Ali et al., 2005). Chemical technology, in the context of the present book, relies on chemical bonds of hydrocarbons. Nature has favored the storage of solar energy in the hydrocarbon bonds of plants and animals, and the evolution of chemical technology has exploited this hydrocarbon energy profitably.

The focus of this book is hydrocarbons and the chemistry associated with hydrocarbons in organic chemistry, which will be used to explain the aspects of hydrocarbon properties, structure, and manufacture.

The book will provide information relating to the structure and properties of hydrocarbons and their production through process chemistry and chemical technology to their conversion into commercial products.

2. Organic chemistry

Organic chemistry is a discipline within chemistry that involves study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of carbon-based compounds (in this context – hydrocarbons).

On the other hand, inorganic chemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and behavior of inorganic compounds. This field covers all chemical compounds except the myriad of carbon-based compounds, such as the hydrocarbons, which are the subjects of organic chemistry. The distinction between the two disciplines is far from absolute, and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic chemistry in which organic compounds and metals form distinct and stable products. An example is tetraethyl lead, which was formerly used in gasoline (until it was banned by various national environmental agencies) as an octane enhancer to prevent engine knocking or pinging during operation.

Other than this clarification and brief mention here, neither inorganic chemistry nor organometallic chemistry will be described further in this text.

Organic compounds are structurally diverse, and the range of applications of organic compounds is enormous. In addition, organic compounds may contain any number of other elements, including nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, halogens, phosphorus, and silicon. They form the basis of, or are important constituents of, many products (such as plastics, drugs, petrochemicals, food, explosives, and paints) and, with very few exceptions, they form the basis of all life processes and many industrial processes.

2.1. The chemical bond

The most basic concept in all of chemistry is the chemical bond. The chemical bond is essentially the sharing of electrons between two atoms, a sharing which holds or bonds the atoms together.

Atoms have three components: protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons have a positive charge of +1, neutrons have 0 charge, and electrons have a negative charge of –1. The protons and neutrons occupy the center of the atom as a piece of solid matter called the nucleus. The electrons exist in orbitals surrounding the nucleus. In reality, it is impossible to tell the precise trajectory of an electron and the best that can be achieved is to describe the probability of locating the electron in a region of space.

The simplest case is when the nucleus is surrounded by just one electron (for example, the hydrogen atom). In this case, the probability of finding an electron in its lowest energy, or most stable, state is distributed in a spheric...