Understanding and Evaluating Qualitative Educational Research

Marilyn V. Lichtman

• Publisher: SAGE Publications, Inc
• Year: 2010
• ISBN:
  9781483343266
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Research in Education

Illustrating the techniques of qualitative research to help readers learn to read, analyze, and design studies themselves Taking a well-rounded and practical look at qualitative educational research, this book focuses on the diverse ways that qualitative researchers design their studies, and illustrates the wide range of techniques with myriad examples. Each example within a category of qualitative research—ethnography, grounded theory, phenomenology, case study, action research, narrative, and mixed methods—is accompanied by commentary from the editor regarding the particular approach used. The text concludes with an "Issues and Concepts" section that addresses issues that are at the forefront of this rapidly changing field. Key Features

• Distinguishes among major qualitative research approaches to help readers connect qualitative methods with completed research studies
• Shows students how to read, analyze, and design their own qualitative research studies
• Covers current issues in qualitative educational research

PART I

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH APPROACHES

Chapter 1

Reading Ethnography

Chapter 2

Reading Grounded Theory

Chapter 3

Reading Phenomenology

Chapter 4

Reading Case Studies

Chapter 5

Reading Action Research

Chapter 6

Reading Narrative

Chapter 7

Reading Mixed Methods

As of this writing in 2009, there is an abundance of published studies that make use of various qualitative research approaches. There are a number of journals devoted exclusively to articles of a qualitative nature. In addition, many other journals accept articles written from a qualitative research perspective.

This was not always the case, however. In the 1980s, some in the field of education—dissatisfied with the paucity of research about the culture of classrooms and schools—began to apply ethnographic methods to address questions about schooling, teaching, and learning. One of the first works specifically devoted to qualitative research methods in education, Robert Bogdan and Sari Biklen’s textbook Qualitative Research for Education (first edition 1982, second edition 1992), emphasized ethnographic methods. Throughout the decade of the 1980s and into the early 1990s, other qualitative research approaches found their way into education. Yvonna Lincoln and Egon Guba introduced the provocative work Naturalistic Inquiry (1985), which challenged us to think about the very assumptions on which traditional quantitative research was based. The educational research field was undergoing tremendous change.

Throughout this period, qualitative researchers began to look for outlets to publish their research. Qualitative researchers were also finding their way. Many of the traditional journals and editors struggled with these new approaches to conducting research. Traditional journals and editors were in somewhat of a quandary: What was qualitative research? Was there more than one type? Was there a “right” way to do it? Could it be more than ethnography? What made for “good” qualitative research? How could they judge something that was dynamic and emerging? Who would set the criteria? The traditional way of doing research was being turned on its head—often by those whose voices had not been heard previously. Beginning in 1988, the U.K.-based International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education (QSE) became a specific source for publication of qualitative educational studies. Although not limited to the educational field, other journals became more open to publishing qualitative studies in education (e.g., The Qualitative Report, Educational Researcher, Qualitative Inquiry, and Qualitative Research, among others).

In 1998, John Creswell published Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Traditions. For the first time, qualitative researchers had available to them a text that presented ways of doing qualitative research that were different from ethnography. Qualitative research had arrived. The second edition of Creswell’s book (2007) saw a subtle change in the title: Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches. This 2007 edition included five approaches (i.e., narrative, phenomenological, grounded theory, ethnographic, and case study). Narrative had replaced biography in this edition, and the term “approaches” had replaced “traditions.” Creswell’s text was not specific to education, but it was quite applicable to the field.

By the late 1990s, there was an explosion of journals, some online, that were more accepting of publishing articles that did not follow a traditional, quantitative approach. Most of these journals were targeted to a general readership in the social sciences rather than specifically to education. As we approach the end of the first decade of the 21st century, we continue to see many new avenues for researchers to have their work available to larger audiences. In addition to online journals, communication using the Internet has resulted in work becoming immediately available. Although much of this writing does not go through the usual peer review process, it is available for the worldwide community. I believe this global community of scholars may bring about new ways and new criteria for evaluating and judging.

In 2006, I published Qualitative Research in Education, which was revised in 2010. That textbook targeted the educational community, and the book you are about to read builds on it. It provides many examples drawn from a wide variety of sources to illustrate the ways in which qualitative educational researchers try to answer questions and conduct research. It owes a strong debt to Creswell’s work.

I have selected seven different research approaches for you to consider. I struggled with terms for some time. Should I call these research designs, research methods, or research approaches? Which ones should I choose? During the early planning of this volume, several reviewers made suggestions about which approaches should be illustrated. In addition to the five identified by Creswell, I added action research and mixed methods research. Obviously, I did not include all approaches. I would have liked to include examples of feminist approaches, autoethnography, biography, teacher research, and combined qualitative approaches, but space was a limiting factor.

I recall one of the first times I taught a course in qualitative research methods, in the late 1980s. I combed numerous journals (online searches were not yet available) looking for examples of published work and ways of thinking about research. I sought permissions and prepared packets of material for students. I strained to find good examples. It was difficult to locate enough pertinent material.

Close to 30 years later, I faced a different set of problems. So much is out there—almost too much to absorb. All is available to me through search engines and a computerized system available through Virginia Tech. I could do all my exploring from the comfort of my own home. Rather than not having sufficient material, I had too much.

I hope you will enjoy reading these different research studies. I did. Some are by those new to the field, and others are by those whose names you will recognize. I hope my comments that accompany each article will help you better understand the research approach.

I chose to begin with articles that represent ethnography. Chapter 1 contains two articles. As I said earlier, that is the qualitative research approach that has been most closely associated with education. In fact, many ethnographies are published in book form. The two ethnographies I chose for you represent different perspectives. Nukaga uses a traditional ethnographic model. Jackson explores ethnography from a post-structural viewpoint.

In contrast to ethnographic research, which has few details about how to analyze data, I introduce you to grounded theory in Chapter 2. Grounded theory is the most structured and objective of the qualitative research approaches, especially with respect to data analysis. Although based on work from the 1960s, it actually was much more popular in the nursing field than in education. Eich’s work is an example applied to the field of higher education. Coyne and Cowley (from the nursing field) provide an example of data analysis using grounded theory methods.

In Chapter 3, I provide you with examples of phenomenological studies. Phenomenology attempts to determine the essence of lived experiences. I think educational qualitative researchers are still learning about how to do this. Perhaps the philosophical underpinnings of the approach present some practical problems. Hines and his colleagues study technology use among high school administrators. I don’t think they quite get to the lived experience or its essence, but you should still find the study interesting. Bambara and her colleagues explore the lived experiences of those involved in online courses.

In Chapter 4, I offer you an example of a case study conducted by Bouck in a rural high school. The second article I offer you in the chapter is somewhat challenging. Watts reacts to the writings of Stake, one of the leading writers in the field of case study. Although not a research study, I believe it has much to offer. A word of caution, however. The format of the article is somewhat confusing. We were not able to reproduce the unusual spacing found in the original published article. If you are interested, you should look at the original.

Action research approaches are presented in Chapter 5. These are close to those of you in education. Miskovic and Hoop present a comprehensive example of participatory action research. Such an approach usually leads to a call to action and often is political in nature. Fisher and Phelps use a play format to present information about action research.

In Chapter 6, I introduce narrative approaches. Creswell chose to replace the tradition of biography with that of the narrative. I also chose to use narrative approaches since it is much broader than just biography. Seaton’s account of a communal narrative is very moving. In his essay, Barone suggests that the movement toward a return to the “gold standard” may challenge the very nature of using narrative as a qualitative research approach.

I conclude Part 1 with Chapter 7, in which I introduce you to studies using a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods. Actually, the first article by Creswell in this chapter is not a study perse, but an explanation of the role of mixed methods in today’s world. I was surprised to learn that Creswell was a proponent of this viewpoint; I did not know that when I began to use his text in the late 1990s. The chapter concludes with Scott and Sutton’s study of professional development of teachers.

REFERENCES

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Bogdan, R., & Biklen, S. (1982, 1992). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theory and methods. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Creswell, J. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Creswell, J. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Lincoln, Y., & Guba, E. (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry. Thousand Oaks CA: Sage.

Lichtman, M. (2006, 2010). Qualitative research in education: A user’s guide. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Chapter 1

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READING ETHNOGRAPHY

It is now time to look closely at published ethnographies. I have selected two ethnographies for you to read. Both use high school students as the central figures, are written by women students, use writing styles that are direct and personal, and are written in the first person.

In the early days of ethnography, researchers typically studied cultures that were dramatically different from their own. In those cases, researchers were always in a dominant position with relation to those they studied, and power rested with the researchers. Those researchers traveled to the far reaches of the world. Today’s ethnographers tend to stay closer to home—but some travel around the world via the Internet. Although the relationship between the researcher and those studied is not always as onesided as it once was, we still see power differences. Some researchers have tried to reduce the power discrepancy by identifying those studied as co-researchers. In my view, however, this still does not solve the problem.

KEY ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY

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• Ethnography consists of an in-depth look at a culture or subculture;
• often limits the study to a specific aspect of culture;
• relies on the field of anthropology for its theoretical base;
• addresses issues of gaining access, role of observer, power issues; and
• often uses words of participants in written presentations.
• Much of the research in ethnography comes out of the field of education.

The first article is by Misako Nukaga. It is a study of Korean-American students in Los Angeles. Specifically, it targets how children use food as a symbolic resource to negotiate group boundaries in peer interaction. Nukaga doesn’t travel to another country to study a culture different from her own. Instead, she selects Korean-American students who attend school in a large urban area. Because she is of Japanese descent, Nukaga says it is easy for her to study other Asian students. Nukaga’s study of Korean-American children during their school lunchtime presents a slice of culture that will be unfamiliar to many of you. Because she is an adult and working in the school, power discrepancies occur. Nukaga does try to minimize them by sitting with the kids and “becoming one of them.” Nukaga was a student when this article was published, and received a fellowship to support her dissertation.

The study follows a traditional approach to ethnography. It includes a detailed review of the literature that focuses on issues related to food and ethnicity. As a fairly traditional ethnography, she writes in a somewhat remote and objective style, and not in the personal style that you will encounter in the second study in this chapter. Unlike a contemporary ethnography, which might explore issues of feminism, power, and reflexivity, this study is more traditional in its look and in its format. In addition, it includes detailed quotes.

In contrast to Nukaga’s study, Alecia Jackson’s study presents an ethnography that is less traditional. She calls it “post-structural.” On first glance, it appears that Jackson’s ethnography is a study of high school girls in a small town. As you read in greater depth, however, you will discover the article is really about Jackson’s role and how she negotiates and comes to understand being an ethnographer in a personal setting. In fact, it goes far afield from what you might expect. It fits quite well into a poststructural model because she relies on the philosophical contributions of Michel Foucault, a French philosopher who wrote about power and knowledge.

In her study, which she conducted in the same high school she had attended years before, Jackson turns the idea of looking at diverse cultures on its head. She does not want to place herself in a position of power, and in fact struggles at times with trying to move away from the power role. Jackson does a good job of explaining some of the philosophical underpinnings of Foucault’s philosophy.

There were several reasons I selected this article for you to read: first, because it is written in a very engaging manner; second, because it is about students. A third reason I chose this work is because Jackson wrote it while she was still a doctoral student. You should be able to identify with her more readily than if she had been a professor for many years.

Conducting ethnographies in school settings is challenging. You will see my comments interspersed in both studies related to some of the issues. You should anticipate that issues might include gaining access, keeping confide...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• PART I: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH APPROACHES
• PART II: ISSUES AT THE FOREFRONT OF THE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH FIELD
• Epilogue: Reading, Writing, and Thinking About Qualitative Research
• Index
• About the Author