Understanding and Dealing With Violence

A Multicultural Approach

Barbara C Wallace, Robert T. Carter

• Publisher: SAGE Publications, Inc
• Year: 2002
• ISBN:
  9781506376165
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: Interpersonal Relations in Psychology
• Index: Psychology

Understanding and Dealing with Violence: A Multicultural Approach situates violence within a social, cultural, and historical context. Edited by distinguished scholars Barbara C. Wallace and Robert T. Carter, this unique volume explores historical factors, socialization influences, and the historical and contemporary dynamics between the oppressed and the oppressor. State-of-the-art research guides a diverse group of psychologists, educators, policy-makers, religious leaders, community members, victims, and perpetrators in finding viable solutions to violence.

Part I

Understanding and Dealing With Violence Through a Psychology of Oppression, Liberation, and Identity Development

1

A Multicultural Approach to Violence

Toward a Psychology of Oppression, Liberation, and Identity Development

BARBARA C. WALLACE

A multicultural approach to violence considers multiple cultural variables that operate in the origin, manifestation, and dynamics of violence on the level of the individual, family, organization, and society while appreciating both historical and sociocultural influences. Hence, these multiple cultural variables may be derived from the social context or from the personal characteristics and experiences of those either perpetrating or being victimized by violence.

This means we must consider the experiences of the oppressed and the oppressor when the form of “diversity or difference” at issue may take any one or more manifestations. This also allows for us to consider the experiences of oppression when an individual has created and self-defined himself or herself as possessing literally any identity—even one that is a composite of multiple identities—as he or she will be respected in evolving that unique identity, be allowed to self-determine what it is and should be called as an identity, and may share perceptions and conceptualizations regarding those kinds and forms of oppression to which he or she has been subjected. What is needed and offered is a kind of generic or global understanding of violence and oppression that can be applied to literally any instance of social injustice.

This volume’s multicultural approach to personal and social violence examines the broad dimensions of violence as it occurs on multiple levels involving multiple systems. On the level of the individual, multiple cultural influences include race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, ability/disability status, religion, class, socioeconomic status, education, background, and experiences. Literally, any attitudes, beliefs, traditions, and practices that are passed on from group member to group member and from generation to generation may constitute a cultural influence. Or one may be the first to create that identity, perhaps in one’s generation or contemporary social environment, even as one may then connect with others who embrace that identity for themselves, as well. Any one individual may, therefore, claim multiple cultural influences on his or her self-concept, identity, beliefs, attitudes, feelings, behaviors, and overall consciousness. For example, one might be an African American, Jewish, gay, disabled individual from a middle-class background who is currently affluent with a graduate-level education. Any of these multiple markers of identity, whether readily perceived by others or not, may serve as a trigger for others to target an individual for the experience of institutionalized racism, prejudice, discrimination, and even overt visible violent attacks. The bottom line is that the “diverse and different other” may be subject to overt and covert violence. The multiple levels and systems on which we focus within the multicultural approach to violence go beyond that of the individual to include family, community, and the larger society in the United States, as well as an international community linked by war, refugee and exile experiences, telecommunications, and frequent immigration and travel. This encompasses societal institutions and organizations, such as academia, professions, medical centers, community clinics, government agencies and laboratories, churches, synagogues, mosques, social settings, the retail industry, corporations, the criminal justice system, and the Internet and media—all of which reflect the realities of contemporary personal and social violence. This book strives to empower readers to be multiculturally competent change agents who can effectively engage with diverse community members on a national and international scale to end violence and promote healing.

Understanding and dealing with violence means acknowledging the social context, as well as historical and/or contemporary forms of oppression. The social context is full of institutions that foster contemporary forms of oppression, effectively perpetuating personal and social violence. Much harm is done through institutionalized violence and oppression.

Institutionalized violence and oppression may be defined as the presence in organizations, as well as its leadership and members, of patterns of behavior, ways of thinking, and emotional responses to “diverse and different others” who are made to feel unwelcome, unaccepted, and disrespected within the institution as a result of a multiplicity of factors—such as white privilege, white domination, prejudice, discrimination, racism, sexism, classism, ageism, heterosexism, homophobia, and the perpetuation of invisibility and disregard for people with disabilities. The result of institutionalized violence and oppression is that those exposed to it may suffer unfavorable work conditions, lower pay, patterns of not being promoted or retained, firings, unfair treatment, stress reactions, health problems, emotional pain, and cognitive distress, and they may behave in a variety of ways that specifically reflect the impact of being a target of hate, anger, and the many manifestations of institutionalized violence listed above.

Historically, disadvantages have accrued for those who have suffered from institutionalized violence and oppression. This disadvantaging has taken many forms for enslaved Africans, Native Americans, women, immigrants, people with disabilities, and gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender people. Long periods and eras of oppression involving discrimination and even accepted and legally sanctioned forms of violence against members of these groups are a part of that history. The legacy of institutionalized violence, oppression, and historical disadvantaging has direct links with persisting contemporary forms of oppression, including white privilege. Considering these factors means fully appreciating the social context for violence. The approach to violence that is taken, therefore, allows us to draw links between historical factors, prevailing practices that are rooted in history, and contemporary manifestations of violence.

Once one appreciates how the manifestations of violence and solutions to violence have everything to do with a social context rampant with the realities of oppression, a call for social justice and advocacy work on behalf of the oppressed follows logically. Activists for social change may benefit from the multicultural approach to violence, as their engagement in the change process is essential. Psychological and educational organizational consultants are needed who have a multicultural perspective that appreciates the manner in which oppression and covert violence may operate on multiple systems levels, including the level of the individual, family, community, organizations, professions, and society overall. However, it is important to increase the knowledge of all professionals in varied fields, as well as members of a global community, because professionals and community members need to work in partnership to end the multiple manifestations of violence.

As the introductory foundation chapter for establishing the nature and dimensions of a multicultural approach to violence, this chapter will present the following: (a) the psychology of oppression and liberation in order to foster understanding of the impact of the U.S. culture of violence, (b) graphic symbols to codify the dynamics within a psychology of oppression and liberation, (c) what it means to enter the inner worldview and self-structure of the oppressed and the oppressor toward articulating a psychology of identity development, (d) the psychology or pedagogy of liberation for the plight of internalization, and (e) seven steps for transforming personal and cultural paradigms, illustrating the central role of carefully structured dialogue.

The Psychology of Oppression: Understanding the Impact of the U.S. Culture of Violence

One might begin with a case in point to understand why a psychology of oppression is needed in many parts of the world that have languished in the aftermath of enslavement, colonialism, and centuries of institutionalized racism and multiple forms of oppression against the “diverse and different other.” For example, the United States is a culture of violence that represents a good starting point for introducing the psychology of oppression.

The U.S. culture of violence has been defined as a way of life, behaviors, beliefs, practices, and traditions that are taught and transmitted from group member to member and from generation to generation regarding the use of physical force, displays of power, and the spreading of misinformation and myths. Moreover, this transmission of practices and traditions regarding violence occurs in such a way that historically traumatic events profoundly shape impact what is transmitted to different cultural group members and across generations (Wallace, 1993, 1996). This definition of the culture of violence includes the historical destruction of Native American civilization, the existence of the slave trade, violence against many newly arrived immigrants, and the codified degradation of African Americans. It also includes subsequent forms of more contemporary institutionalized racism and historically sanctioned discrimination and violence, especially as practiced against people of color, providing the overall context for clients’ lives in the United States (Wallace, 1993, 1996). Perhaps somewhat less pronounced in societal discourse is a focus on historically sanctioned discrimination and violence against a number of marginalized and oppressed groups. These include persons with disabilities and gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender individuals, in addition to those with any “diversity or difference” typically disdained in society. As a result of beliefs about these “diverse and different others” being transmitted from group member to group member, one may speak of societal members’ possession of conditioned cognitions. These conditioned cognitions, or learned thoughts, involve the learning of stereotypes to effectively spread misinformation and myths. Possession of conditioned cognitions reflects socialization influences from the larger culture, mass media, and family, religious, and ethnic groups to which individuals belong. Cognitions guide behavior, so that individuals may draw on their conditioned cognitions as they engage in behavioral practices and traditions, such as directing physical violence against members of ethnic, racial, gender, class, sexual orientation, and other varied “different” groups. It is within this cultural context that psychologists, educators, and community members have experienced socialization processes within varied settings and institutions within the United States. The media, the Web, and international telecommunications allow for the transmission of beliefs about “different” persons, as well as stereotypes, across national and international borders.

A Broad Definition of Violence

Violence is defined as delivering physical blows (with or without weaponry), displaying and misusing one’s power, or bombarding a person with destructive misinformation and myths so that, in effect, an assault occurs either on a person’s physical body or to the self-concept, identity, cognitions, affects, and consciousness of the victim of violence (Wallace, 1993, 1996). This definition permits an evaluation of the role that psychologists, educators, and community members may unwittingly play when they have unconsciously and unintentionally perpetrated an assault, negatively impacting the self-concept, identity, cognitions, affects, and consciousness of a fellow human being, client, research participant, or student. Indeed, any individual, family, community, or societal member needs to go well beyond a keen awareness of the reality of overt physical violence or violence perpetrated with weaponry such as handguns. It is essential that we all become aware of how invisible, covert violence typically precedes the manifestation of visible overt violence. Invisible covert violence may actually set the stage and create conditions for the manifestation of overt physical violence. Moreover, even where invisible covert violence reigns, a substantial assault has been perpetrated, nonetheless, on others. The damage done is significant and quite destructive, and it can be measured in terms of the insidious, often enduring impact on the self-concept, identity, cognitions, affects, and consciousness of the victim of violence.

To establish the approach set forth in this volume as multicultural, we need an approach to understanding that is sensitive to how members of historically marginalized and oppressed groups end up experiencing both covert and overt forms of violence. The knowledge base offered in regard to personal and social violence needs to permit understanding the painful, disillusioning, and unfortunately typical experiences of oppressed and marginalized people in the United States who are diverse and from varied multicultural groups. An in-depth examination of invisible covert violence permits fostering this understanding and establishing a sufficient knowledge base for this purpose, as this chapter seeks to demonstrate.

From the broad definition of violence that guides the compilation of scholarly work and research to be presented in subsequent chapters in this volume, it follows that all forms of violence must be exposed and rejected. This includes any invisible covert violence that psychologists and educators (whether when counseling others, engaging in research, or teaching) may also perpetrate in their respective work and settings. This violence encompasses the negative impact and damage done to the self-concept, identity, cognitions, affects, and consciousness of a client, research participant, student, or community member. Assuming the responsibility to do no harm in our work with clients, research participants, students, and community members means that we must not engage in invisible covert violence, suggesting the need for the training presented in this chapter.

Table 1.1 The Psychology of Oppression

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Given an actor A, who has been socially conditioned to feel superior, and an actor B, who is deemed to be inferior, the psychology of oppression acknowledges the following dynamics:

1. The projection of negative and low expectations, as well as stereotypes from the spreading of misinformation and myths:
   A ⇒ B
2. The practice of domination and hierarchical authority by a controlling superior seeking to subjugate one deemed inferior:
   
3. One feeling superior talks down to another as though he or she is inferior in one-way communication:
   A ~⇓ B

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Graphic Symbols to Codify the Dynamics Within a Psychology of Oppression and Liberation

Graphic, symbolic concepts may be of value in increasing psychologists’, educators’, and community members’ understanding and knowledge of the importance of avoiding the perpetration of invisible covert violence. These graphic symbols also serve to codify the dynamics within a psychology of oppression (see Table 1.1), as well as those dynamics within a psychology of liberation (see Table 1.2). The goal is to avoid three ways of perpetrating invisible covert violence: (a) the projection of negative and low expectations, (b) the practice of domination and exercise of hierarchical authority, and (c) verbal communication wherein a dominant superior talks down to a subordinate inferior. This knowledge may potentially stop the cycle of individuals (e.g., counselors, researchers, teachers, and community members) who role model and condition the next generation to follow them in perpetrating invisible ...

Table of contents

• Cover page
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• Foreword
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• Dedication
• Part I: Understanding and Dealing With Violence Through a Psychology of Oppression, Liberation, and Identity Development
• Part II: Understanding and Dealing With Hate, Hate Crimes, and Hate Violence
• Part III: Understanding and Dealing With Violence in Academic Settings
• Part IV: Understanding and Dealing With Youth Violence
• Part V: Understanding and Dealing With International Victims of Violence and Torture
• References
• Index
• About the Editors
• About the Contributors