Meditation and Yoga in Psychotherapy

Techniques for Clinical Practice

Annellen M. Simpkins, C. Alexander Simpkins

• Publisher: Wiley
• Year: 2010
• ISBN:
  9780470920572
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: Psychotherapy
• Index: Psychology

Praise for Meditation and Yoga in Psychotherapy

"From the wisdom of ancient cultures to modern neuroscience, the authors skillfully create a bridge of understanding between the practice of meditation, yoga, and psychotherapy. The Simpkins are at their best in describing how everyone can learn to integrate their own brain, body, and mind to facilitate a creative synchrony of healing and well-being."
— Kathryn Rossi, PhD Coeditor, Collected Works of Milton H. Erickson: The Nature of Therapeutic Hypnosis

"This reader-friendly text is directed toward therapists and healthcare workers who are considering incorporating yoga and meditation into their work. These technologies are time-honored and appear to have beneficial effects on contemporary clients and patients. Meditation and Yoga in Psychotherapy serves as an informative introduction to these¿practices, and explains how a therapist might integrate such practices into their work. The chapters on neuroscience research and healthy aging are unique in books of this nature, and the discussion of alleviating depression alone is worth the price of the book."
— Stanley Krippner, PhDProfessor of Psychology, Saybrook UniversityCoauthor, Haunted by Combat: Understanding PTSD in War Veterans

A thoughtful and pragmatic guide for integrating meditation and yoga techniques into traditional psychotherapy

Meditation and Yoga in Psychotherapy is an inspiring "how-to" guide grounded in the neuroscientific and clinical evidence that supports the use of meditation and other yoga practices to improve clients' mental health.

Drawing from the authors' decades of practice, teaching, and writing, this inspiring book is focused on applying meditation, yoga, and Zen to therapy, with discussion of:

• The latest neuroscience findings, showing how the brain and larger nervous system are altered by yoga methods
  
  

• Philosophical and psychological principles upon which yoga is based
  
  

• The how, when, and why for use of specific techniques with common psychological problems
  
  

• Fundamental stretching exercises and meditation techniques
  
  

Filled with vivid case examples and writings from renowned yoga masters, Meditation and Yoga in Psychotherapy encourages a therapeutic process in which clients move their attention from outside concerns to inner mindfulness. With a range of techniques that embrace the diversity and uniqueness of clients, this book offers methods to creatively individualize techniques for a wide variety of presenting problems.

Part I

Efficacy and Neuroscience Research

1

Efficacy

The world is ready to give up its secrets if only we know how to knock, how to give it the necessary blow. The strength and force of the blow come through concentration. There is no limit to the power of the human mind. The more concentrated it is, the more power is brought to bear on one point. That is the secret.

(Vivekananda, 1953, p. 582)

Nathan seemed to be a client with a great deal of potential. Although his mother died when he was very young, he had grown up in a loving home with a caring, committed father. He had excelled in high school as captain of the football team and as a National Merit Scholar. He was accepted into so many great colleges that he could not decide which one to choose. So, over spring break, he and his father embarked on a driving trip together to visit each college. The trip was fun, a shared adventure. By the last days of the trip, they were a little behind schedule with two schools left to visit. Nathan urged his father to drive straight through to the next college without stopping. It was late at night as they approached their destination. Nathan drifted off to sleep for just a few minutes. He awoke in a hospital, with no memory of what had happened. He was informed that they had been in a car accident. His father had died, whereas he survived. He recovered after a short stay in the hospital.

He felt overwhelmed by guilt over not staying awake to help keep his father alert and for having urged his father to continue driving that night. He began to dread the nearness of death, and going to college had a new meaning for him: The thought of it made him anxious.

Nathan had been to several therapists who had offered him various treatments, such as catharsis, desensitization therapy, and cognitive restructuring. He said that although each treatment was helpful in general, therapy could not remove that terrifying feeling that hung over him. So, he tried to not think about things too deeply, to help himself cope. As a result, this complex, highly intelligent young man simplified his life and worked only when he had to, at menial jobs. He lost interest in going to college, and instead, engaged in daring, dangerous extreme sports to escape his feeling concerning death. As he put it, “When I’m completely absorbed in what I am doing, with my life on the line, I really feel alive, and lose my feeling of fear about being near death.” But a recent brush with death while attempting an extreme sport convinced him that this was probably not the best way for him to lose that feeling. He realized that he should attempt to change, so he decided to try a different therapy, a meditational one.

Nathan found relief as he learned to work with his mental faculties. He practiced yoga meditation and enjoyed the feeling of control he gained. He could then apply his attention fully to his therapeutic concerns, allowing him to address his problems at a level he never could before. He also appreciated yoga’s integration of postures with breathing exercises, which allowed him to control his tension and fear. Then he could do some further analytical work, to help him come to terms with his guilt feelings, the meaning of college for him, and of his life in relation to his father’s death. Soon, Nathan was able to ease his anxiety, engage in his life fully, and move forward. We heard from him a few years later, that he had gone to college and was pursuing a career in bioengineering. He continued to participate in sports, now as part of a college team, without the need for extreme risks.

Another client was in his early forties. He was short, with a stocky build, which had earned him the nickname “Tank.” Unlike our client Nathan, Tank was unskilled. He had little education and low motivation. He lived with his sister and grandmother, barely getting by. He felt lethargic and spent much of his time sitting on the couch, watching television. He complained of feeling bored, but he could not think of anything he wanted to do. He did not say or do too much until something got him annoyed. Then he was prone to angry outbursts, which he claimed were not a problem to him, but they were a problem to everyone in the family, who wanted him to change. So, he grudgingly agreed to try psychotherapy.

From the very beginning phases, we could see that Tank was lacking in mental tools. He could barely hold his attention on what we were saying. Nor could he reflect on his own experiences. Clearly, Tank needed to build some skills. He began by turning his attention to breathing. He was truly amazed the first time he noticed the sensations of his breathing. He told us, “I never knew you could do that!” Tank’s reaction is a reminder not to take for granted self-awareness skills. Although anyone can learn to access their attention, they may not automatically do so.

Gradually, building slowly along the way, Tank learned many of the exercises in this book, which helped him improve his attentional focus. He could turn his attention inward to his sensations or outward, extending his attention as he chose. As he became more capable of being self-aware, he was able to address his anger problem, which involved resolving some of his frustrations and resentments.

In time, Tank began to feel interested in the world around him. He took a trip to the local zoo. This was a big step for him, because he rarely went anywhere. Not only did he enjoy the animals, but he was even more interested in looking at the plants. We encouraged him to go to the public library to take out a book on gardening. He did, and he then followed the directions for planting a small garden. His attentional skills sharpened, as he learned how to follow his thought into action, right in his own backyard. His self-confidence improved as well, and he enrolled in a gardening class at the local nursery. Eventually, he got a job working for a landscape company. His family told us that his temper problem was greatly improved. “Now he’s even nice to be around!” his sister told us. When we last saw him, he was happy, with a healthy curiosity about the world, and he had the mental skills to pursue his interests as they arose.

Yoga has stood the test of time as an approach that fosters transformation. Modern psychotherapists need to know that the methods they employ that seem sound conceptually have also been tested empirically. Interest in meditation has increased dramatically in the West over the past 50 years. In response, scientific research on yoga and meditation methods first gathered momentum during the 1960s. Over the past two decades, the number and quality of studies have increased significantly. Research on meditation’s efficacy, along with neuroscience’s evidence of real and positive effects on the brain have made it viable to include yoga in psychotherapeutic treatments. Therapists can now feel confident that these methods have an ever-growing scientific basis for helping with a wide variety of problems.

This chapter covers some highlights from the many research projects that have been done. Researchers are measuring the general effects of yoga when used therapeutically and what problems yoga can best address. Another type of research is investigating the healing factors involved. What makes yoga an effective method of treatment? How is it working? Both efficacy research and healing factors research are covered in this chapter, and the neuroscience findings are discussed in Chapter 2.

EFFICACY STUDIES OVERVIEW

Meditation and yoga were largely unknown in the West before the 1960s, except for a few isolated cases. It was not until meditation was popularized in that decade that it became broadly practiced in the West. Transcendental Meditation was one of the first meditation methods to be performed en masse, and the Transcendental Meditation organization, recognizing the importance of scientific verification, sponsored many scientific studies, some of which are included in this chapter. Although the quality of the studies may have varied, the sheer number and consistent results encouraged further investigation.

Efficacy studies usually compare yoga treatment to no treatment or to an alternative approach. These projects cover the effects of various forms of short-term yoga treatments. Some of the treatments involve postures combined with simple breathing awareness and meditative quieting. Other studies utilize more varied breathing exercises, at times combined with mantras (chanting a simple sound) and mudras (making a simple hand gesture) performed in a sitting position. And some yoga research is based solely in the use of meditation. All of these studies fall under the category of yoga research.

Neuroscience has been another boon to meditation research, offering strong scientific evidence for how meditation and yoga alter the nervous system in general and specific regions of the brain in particular. Taken together, the meditation and yoga research provides an ever-growing body of evidence that there is a scientific basis for using these methods in therapy.

Considering the positive findings from the use of different types and combinations of yoga techniques, it is clear that therapists have a rich source for methods to add into treatment. For example, you might want to incorporate a set of breathing exercises, simple postures, meditation, or any combination of these methods integrated together. The choice of technique should be tailored to fit the client’s problem as well as the individual needs, and we will guide this process in Part III.

Some General Effects

Yoga fosters certain general effects. Researchers have found that yoga meditation has a positive influence on health. A summary of medical research on yoga over a 10-year period found that yoga can provide measurable health benefits for people who are healthy as well as those who suffer from musculoskeletal or cardiopulmonary disease (Raub, 2002).

A study performed at two companies tested managers and employees who practiced meditation regularly. The participants improved significantly in overall physical health, mental well-being, and vitality when compared to control subjects with similar jobs in the same companies. Meditation practitioners also reported significant reductions in health problems such as headaches and backaches, improved quality of sleep, and a significant reduction in the use of alcohol and cigarettes, compared to personnel in the control groups (Alexander et al., 1993).

Studies of many different forms of meditation have found that the practice improves the quality of life in terms of better memory and productivity, reduced anxiety, improvements in hypertension and sleeplessness, as well as converting loneliness, usually felt as a troubling emotion, into solitude, which can be a source for personal growth and even enlightenment (Dhar, 2002). Several studies found that Transcendental Meditation (TM), a practice that involves focusing attention using a mantra, led to overall psychological health (Alexander, Rainforth, & Gelderloos, 1991). A meta-analysis of 42 independent studies considered the effects of meditation on a general increase in self-actualization. The researchers found that meditators had markedly higher levels of self-actualization as compared with other forms of relaxation (Alexander et al., 1991).

Many different yoga methods have been studied and compared over the recent decades. A healthy group of men and women, ages 18 to 30 years old, participated in a three-month-long course in yoga. The first 30 days they practiced yoga breathing exercises, and then the last two months they added a series of yoga postures. Both the women and men showed positive improvements and reductions in risk factors for metabolic and cardiovascular diseases, as measured by reduced levels of total cholesterol and triglycerides following the breathing segment of the study. The subjects maintained that improvement when measured following the addition of postures in the third month of the study (Prasad et al., 2006).

Even in the midst of difficult circumstances, yoga can help people to cope better and experience improved mental and physical well-being. For example, individuals who have had HIV/AIDS learned breathing combined with meditation methods. Of the 47 subjects who completed the study, all showed marked improvement in their feelings of well-being right after the program. In follow-up interviews with the participants, subjects described having made positive life changes, even though their quantitative measures indicated that they were under increased stress (Brazier, Mulkins, & Verhoef, 2006).

Improved Memory and Intelligence

The ancient yogis believed that yoga techniques combining stimulating postures with calming relaxation meditations would bring about a state of mental balance. Recent studies have found that this claim may be true. The researchers measured the peak latency and peak amplitude of P300 auditory event-related potentials in 47 subjects, before and after these combined yoga practices. P300 is an indicator of cognitive processing. The results showed an enhancement of the P300, indicating that the combined practice of stimulating and calming yoga methods enhanced cognitive functioning (Sarang & Telles, 2006).

Studies were performed to test memory. For example, college students instructed in meditation displayed significant improvements in performance over a two-week period on a perceptual and short-term memory test involving the identification of familiar letter sequences presented rapidly. They were compared with subjects who were randomly assigned to a routine of twice-daily rest with their eyes closed, and with subjects who made no change in their daily routine (Dillbeck, 1982). In several studies, university students who meditated regularly showed significant improvement compared to control subjects on intelligence measures over a two-year period (Cranson, Orme-Johnson, Gakenbach, & Dillbeck, 1991; Dillbeck, Assimakis, Raimondi, & Orme-Johnson, 1986).

Large-Scale Studies: The Maharishi Effect

Under the guidance of the founder of TM, the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (see Chapter 3 for details on the Maharishi and TM), and his organization, a group of large studies were performed in varied locations around the United States between the years of 1976 and 1993. The Maharishi pointed out that people have seen for millennia that meditation can help individuals. He sought to validate scientifically that the practice of meditation could change a whole society. In an address given by the Maharishi, he said:

When the number of people practicing the Transcendental Meditation program rises to about one per cent of a city’s population, the one per cent effect comes into play immediately. Crime, illness, and all other negative aspects of social life diminish sharply, and an influence of coherence and harmony spreads throughout society.

(Mahesh, 1990, p. 32)

This phenomenon became known as the Maharishi Effect. During periods when large-scale Transcendental Meditation groups numbering more than 1% of the population were holding regular meditation sessions, researchers did find a statistically significant reduction in the rate of fatalities resulting from automobile accidents, suicides, and homicides in the United States (Dillbeck, 1980).

This TM project also investigated the effects of meditation on violence. Meditation is known to produce a feeling of inner peace and well-being. Some of these large-scale studies seem to bear out this time-honored claim. Four thousand practitioners of Transcendental Meditation assembled in Washington, D.C. from June 7 to June 30, 1993. The local police monitored the crime rate for the district. Statistics revealed that the crimes decreased 15% during this period and stayed lower for some time after the 21-day event (Hagelin et al., 1999).

Another large-group meditation study revealed a distinct improvement in the quality of life in Rhode Island. Crime rates dropped, auto accidents decreased, and there were fewer deaths resulting from cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption (Dillbeck, Cavanaugh, Glenn, Orme-Johnson, & Mittlefehldt, 1987). Meditation has even been shown to help in a wartime situation. There was a reported decrease in hostilities during the Lebanese war from collective meditation sessions (Abou-Nader, Alexander, & Davies, 1990; Davies & Alexander, 1989).

EFFICACY STUDIES FOR SPECIFIC PROBLEMS

A great many studies have been performed to test the efficacy of the use of yoga for specific problems, both physical and psychological. Yoga has been tested for high blood pressure, memory loss, movement disorders such as Parkinson’s disease, and addictions, as well as for most psychological problems, including stress, anxiety, and depression. It has also been found to be helpful with children and problems of aging.

Research on Yoga for Stress

Yoga and meditation are effective ways to combat stress. Yoga exercises can help a person to take the steps needed to dramatically alter the brain’s stress response, changing the mind-body balance for more comfortable coping. We present a few examples of the kind of research that is being done that shows how yoga is an effective treatment for stress.

The ability to focus attention can be helpful for better toleration of stress. Vaitl and Ott (2005) found that all altered states involve changes in the focus of attention. These changes can vary from a narrow focus of attention to a broad, extended awareness that includes all in a single grasp. Control of attention span has been shown to have many therapeutic applications, with stress being one of them.

For example, an experiment performed by Hempel and Ott (2006) tested 31 students before and after they underwent a 10-week yoga program. They found that narrowing the focus of attention using yoga methods brought significant improvement in handling an induced stressor, as indicated by psychological and physiological measures. The subjects scored higher on the TAS, a test that measures the ability to become absorbed, indicating focus of attention. The subjects also had greater baroflex sensitivity (BRS), which is responsible for maintaining a stable blood pressure. In addition, the subjects showed a more flexible cardiovascular responsiveness, which is linked to higher absorption (Kumar & Pekala, 1988). Thus, yoga training, which develops an improved focused use of attention and greater absorption of attention, proved helpful for tolerating and handling stress more comfortably and flexibly.

Therapists often help families who are coping with the stress of caring for an elderly loved one. The situation is demanding for the caregivers on man...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title Page
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Preface
• Half Title Page
• Part I: Efficacy and Neuroscience Research
• Part II: What Is Yoga?
• Part III: Applications
• Appendix I: Warming Up for Supplemental Practice
• Appendix II: A Quick Tour Through the Brain
• References
• Index
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