High temperatures elicit a variety of reactions in gases, including increased molecular vibrations, dissociation, chemical reactions, ionization, and radiation of light. In addition to affecting the motion of the gas, these processes can lead to changes of composition and electrical properties, as well as optical phenomena. These and other processes of extreme conditions — such as occur in explosions, in supersonic flight, in very strong electrical discharges, and in other cases — are the focus of this outstanding text by two leading physicists of the former Soviet Union. The authors deal thoroughly with all the essential physical influences on the dynamics and thermodynamics of continuous media, weaving together material from such disciplines as gas dynamics, shock-wave theory, thermodynamics and statistical physics, molecular physics, spectroscopy, radiation theory, astrophysics, solid-state physics, and other fields. This volume, uniquely comprehensive in the field of high-temperature gas physics and gas dynamics, was edited and annotated by Wallace D. Hayes and Ronald F. Probstein, leading authorities on the flow of gases at very high speeds. It is exceptionally well suited to the needs of graduate students in physics, as well as professors, engineers, and researchers.
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Yes, you can access Physics of Shock Waves and High-Temperature Hydrodynamic Phenomena by Ya. B. Zel’dovich,Yu. P. Raizer, Yu. P. Raizer in PDF and/or ePUB format, as well as other popular books in Physical Sciences & Physics. We have over one million books available in our catalogue for you to explore.
The state of a gas depends on the concentrations of the various components, such as atoms, molecules, ions, and electrons, and on the distribution of the internal energy among the various degrees of freedom. Generally, the internal energy of a gas consists of the energy of translational motion of the particles, rotational and vibrational energies of the molecules, chemical energy, ionization energy, and the electronic excitation energy of the atoms, molecules, and ions. For complete thermodynamic equilibrium the state of the gas is completely determined by the concentration of each element in the gas mixture and any two macroscopic thermodynamic parameters as, for example, density and specific internal energy.
Excitation of any of the degrees of freedom175 and the establishment of thermodynamic equilibrium require a certain time, whose scale is the so-called relaxation time. Relaxation times for exciting the various degrees of freedom frequently differ appreciably from each other. Therefore, under certain conditions it is possible to achieve thermodynamic equilibrium for some but not all of the degrees of freedom. Equilibrium is established most quickly for the translational degrees of freedom. If some arbitrary velocity distribution of atoms or molecules exists initially, then even after a small number of elastic collisions of particles with their neighbors, the particle velocity distribution will become Maxwellian. The Maxwell distribution is established as a result of the exchange of momentum and kinetic energy among the particles. It should be noted that both the kinetic energy and momentum transfer during the collision of particles with comparable masses are on the average of the same order as the kinetic energy and momentum of the colliding particles. Therefore, the relaxation time for establishing a Maxwell distribution in particles of the same species, or in particles of different species but with comparable masses, is of the order of the average time between gaskinetic collisions
(6.1)
Here l is the gaskinetic mean free path,
is the average particle velocity, n is the particle number density, and σgas is the gaskinetic cross section. For example, in air at standard conditions l ≈ 6 · 10−6 cm and τtrans ∼ 10−10 sec.
Usually the gaskinetic times are very small in comparison with the flow times over which appreciable changes in the macroscopic parameters of the gas, such as density or energy, take place. Therefore, as a rule, it is possible to ascribe to the gas at every instant of time a “translational” temperature, which characterizes the average kinetic energy of translational motion of the particles176. Under conditions of partial thermodynamic equilibrium, where thermodynamic equilibrium for the individual degrees of freedom is referred to, it is implied that the distribution of energy (and of the concentrations of the respective components of the gas mixture) for these degrees of freedom is in equilibrium with the “translational” temperature of the gas. On the other hand, quantities associated with nonequilibrium degrees of freedom may be arbitrary; they depend upon many factors, including the previous “history” of the process in which the gas takes part. Such conditions are encountered in rapid gasdynamic processes or in regions where the macroscopic parameters change rapidly, as for example, in an ultrasonic wave or across a shock front. In these cases the time scale of the phenomenon177 is comparable to or even much smaller than the corresponding relaxation time. The distribution of energy and of concentrations of the respective particles is not determined in this case simply by the temperature, density, and composition of the gas, as in the case of thermodynamic equilibrium, but also by the kinetics of the chemical-physical processes leading to the establishment of equilibrium for the given degrees of freedom.
In certain cases the relaxation time for the establishment of thermodynamic equilibrium in a given degree of freedom is so large that the nonequilibrium state of the system is found to be very stable, and appears essentially steady. Usually such a situation arises in a gas mixture capable of undergoing a chemical reaction, which actually does n...
Table of contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Preface to the Dover Edition
Editors’ foreword
Preface to the English edition
Preface to the first Russian edition
Preface to the second Russian edition
Table of Contents
I. Elements of gasdynamics and the classical theory of shock waves
II. Thermal radiation and radiant heat exchange in a medium
III. Thermodynamic properties of gases at high temperatures
IV. Shock tubes
V. Absorption and emission of radiation in gases at high temperatures
VI. Rates of relaxation processes in gases
VII. Shock wave structure in gases
VIII. Physical and chemical kinetics in hydrodynamic processes
IX. Radiative phenomena in shock waves and in strong explosions in air
X. Thermal waves
XI. Shock waves in solids
XII. Some self-similar processes in gasdynamics
Cited references
Appendix - Some often used constants, relations between units, and formulas*
