Language Maintenance, Revival and Shift in the Sociology of Religion

Rajeshwari Vijay Pandharipande, Maya Khemlani David, Miriam Eisenstein Ebsworth

• Publisher: Multilingual Matters
• Year: 2019
• ISBN:
  9781788926683
• Topic: Languages & Linguistics
• Subtopic: Linguistics
• Index: Languages & Linguistics

This volume addresses the question 'What role does religion play in the maintenance, revival and/or shift, of languages?' The chapters in this volume explore the complex and dynamic relationship between religion and the maintenance, revival and/or shift of languages in different multilingual multicultural contexts, under diverse sociopolitical conditions, at different points in time. The 12 chapters cover data from Algeria, India, Israel, Malaysia, Nigeria, Singapore, UK, USA and Uganda and discuss the impact of context, ideology, identity and education on the following religions: Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, Sikhism, and some religions closely associated with China such as Confucianism and Taoism, and their respective languages and varieties of language in these regions. The languages discussed by the writers in this volume include Arabic, English, Hebrew, Malay, Mandarin, Portuguese, Punjabi, Pali, Sanskrit, Tamazight and Yoruba.

1 Introduction¹

Rajeshwari V. Pandharipande, Maya Khemlani David and Miriam Eisenstein Ebsworth

The Origin and Evolution of the Current Volume

This book is the outcome of the work of many and it has traveled through an unusual terrain before arriving at this point. It is important to note the path it has taken from its conceptualization to completion. This is the third volume in the series on the Sociology of Language of Religion (SLR). The first volume, entitled Explorations in the Sociology of Language and Religion, was co-edited by Tope Omoniyi and Joshua Fishman and was the first in-depth exploration of the language of religion within the framework of sociology. In his ‘Decalogue’, Fishman (2006: 14–25) presented theoretical perspectives on the language of religion as a variety of a language separate from its non-religious counterpart. He identified some salient features of the language of religion such as: (a) the language of religion functions within a multilingual multi-varietal repertoire, (b) the degree of variation between religious and non-religious language varies from one socio-culture to the other, (c) religious language varieties are more stable than others and impact their secular counterparts to a greater degree than the latter do to the former, (d) socio-cultural change impacts religion, religious language and the sociolinguistic repertoire, (e) new religious languages are sanctified and introduced, and two or more religious varieties can co-exist in a speech community and (f) religious languages serve as a counterweight to modernization and language planning.

The second volume, The Sociology of Language and Religion: Change, Conflict and Accommodation (2010), edited by Tope Omoniyi, emphasizes one of the prominent features of the language of religion: namely, the dynamic, complex and changing relationship between language and religion across time and space and the issues related to the adaptation, accommodation and authentication of the change.

This volume on Language Maintenance, Revival and Shift in the Sociology of Religion was originally conceptualized by Joshua Fishman and Tope Omoniyi after the conference on ‘Religion and Religious Education in Language Maintenance and Revitalization’, which was jointly sponsored by Tope Omoniyi of the Centre for Research in English Language and Linguistics (CRELL); the Department of Media, Culture and Language, University of Roehampton, London; and Miriam Eisenstein Ebsworth of New York University, Steinhardt, Department of Teaching & Learning, Programs in Multilingual Multicultural Studies, in honor of Dr Fishman. The chapters in this volume are studies which carry the underpinnings of one or more of Fishman’s above postulates of the language of religion in the context of diverse religions in various countries and settings.

After the unfortunate demise of Joshua Fishman in 2015, Tope Omoniyi took on the responsibility of putting together the volume. However, his untimely illness prevented him from completing the project. Tope passed on in 2017. We (Rajeshwari Pandharipande, Maya Khemlani David and Miriam Eisenstein Ebsworth) promised Tope that we would continue to work on the project and finish what he had started. This volume is a tribute to the late Joshua Fishman and Tope Omoniyi, the two great minds, dedicated scholars, dear colleagues and friends, whose infectious enthusiasm provided inspiration to further explore the field of the Sociology of Language and Religion. We, the editors of this volume and the contributors, are pleased to dedicate this book to the memories of Professor Joshua Fishman and Professor Tope Omoniyi as a sincere acknowledgement of their contribution and commitment to the field and the inspiration they provided to scholars to further explore new dimensions of the phenomena of the language of religion.

Our goal is to investigate the role of religion in the maintenance, revival and/or shift of languages in different parts of the world. The chapters examine the relationship between language and religion and attempt to answer the question ‘What role does religion play in the maintenance, revival and/or shift of a language in diverse countries, religions and languages?’ The 12 chapters in this volume cover data from Algeria, India, Israel, Malaysia, Nigeria, Singapore, the UK, the US and Uganda and discuss the impact of context, ideology, identity and education on the following religions: Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, Sikhism and some religions closely associated with China such as Confucianism and Taoism, and their associated languages and varieties of language in these regions. The languages discussed by the writers in this volume include inter alia Arabic, English, Hebrew, Malay, Mandarin, Portuguese, Punjabi, Pali, Sanskrit, Tamazight and Yoruba.

We utilize a multi-disciplinary approach to the study of language maintenance (LM), language revival or revitalization (LR) and language shift (LS). The authors draw insights from diverse disciplines such as sociolinguistics, religious studies, sociology, ethnography and education. Van Noppen (1981: 2), who introduced the term theolinguistics, claimed, ‘A credible theolinguistics can only grow out of the various disciplines’ mutual awareness of each other’s methods and standards … the theologian should not work with obsolete conceptions of language, nor the linguist hold naïve or fallacious views of theology; and neither should build his arguments on unstable philosophical premises.’ Crystal (2018: 3) points out, ‘In the sixth edition of my Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics (Crystal, 2008) you will see an entry as follows, “theolinguistics” (n.) A term which has been used for the study of the relationship between language and religious thought and practice, as illustrated by ritual, sacred texts, preaching, doctrinal statements and private affirmations of belief.’ The term theolinguistics captures the double-rootedness of religious language. Its form and function are influenced by religion and society. Therefore, a complete understanding of religious language requires its analysis from diverse disciplinary perspectives. The research presented in the chapters here provides evidence to support this claim, as they show the need to incorporate concepts from different disciplines to fully understand the form and function of religious language and its relationship with religion.

Earlier Work on Language Maintenance, Revival and Shift, and the Need for the Volume

Even a cursory look at the work on language maintenance, revival and shift reveals the relative absence of research on the role of religion in maintenance, shift and revival of languages. Within the paradigms of sociolinguistics and sociology, a large number of studies (both theoretical and empirical) have discussed the phenomena of language maintenance, shift, language death and revitalization (Coulmas, 1997; Crystal, 2000; Dorian, 1981, 1992; Edwards, 1992; Fase et al., 1992; Ferguson, 1959; Fishman, 1991; Gal, 1979; Haugen, 1953; Heller, 2007, 2012; Hudson, 1980; Manosuthikit, 2018; Pauwels, 2016; Pine & Turin, 2017, among others). The research up until the end of the 20th century studied the phenomena of language maintenance, revival and shift within the contexts of language contact and bi/multilingualism. The studies on language contact situations typically involved a dominant and a minority language, where the latter’s existence is threatened by the dominant language.

Past research has primarily focused on one or more of the following themes: (a) definitions of language maintenance, shift and revival, (b) causes of language shift, (c) strategies of and motivations for language maintenance and (d) methods of revitalization of language or reversing language shift. Pauwels (2016: 20) describes language maintenance (LM) as, ‘the continued use or retention of an L1, a minority or heritage language in one or more spheres of language use’. In contrast to this, language shift (LS) is defined as, ‘the process in which a language is gradually replaced by another language, often labeled L2, dominant or majority language in all spheres of usage’. Language revival or revitalization (LR) is understood in the context of language shift, degeneration or loss of language. When a language is threatened at different structural and functional levels, ‘reversing this process of shift’ (Fishman, 1991) or making the language functional again is considered revitalization of the language. This process involves prevention of further degeneration of the language and increase in its use. Revitalization is similar to language maintenance. However, there is a difference between the two. Language revitalization presupposes language endangerment and reversal of the process of decline in language use, which is not always presupposed in the language maintenance process. Hebrew in Israel, Basque and Catalan in Spain, Irish in Ireland, and Maori languages in New Zealand are some examples of revitalization of languages in different contexts, under different conditions and with different methods.

A large body of literature has analyzed the variables which generally influence LS. Colonization, invasion and migrations are viewed as prominent factors in creating the contact situations where the less powerful language speakers switch to the dominant language in order to effectively function in the society, and consequently lose the language of their heritage, culture and identity. Language policy either in the native homeland or in the diaspora is viewed as another powerful force, which promotes some as opposed to other languages and thereby becomes instrumental in the maintenance or attrition of languages in a bi/multilingual context. A prime example can be found in the US, where English is the official language of education and communication in practically all domains. There is a plethora of studies, starting from Haugen (1953) and moving through Crystal (2000), which show how minority languages gradually shift to the dominant language, such as English in the US. Revitalization of language or what Fishman calls ‘reversing language shift’ is a process, which involves attempts to stop the decline of the use of a language and promote its use in increasingly wider domains. Languages face attrition or loss due to diverse reasons, including colonial policies of using colonial language as ‘the perfect instrument of empire’, total neglect of indigenous languages, erosion of the dominant language in all functional domains and migration to non-native lands. These are some of the major causes of marginalization and endangerment of ancestral languages. Some striking examples are found in British Columbia (Canada), Hawaii (US), indigenous languages in New Zealand, and Australia. Research has shown that revitalization of languages is as much a consequence of governments’ language policies as it is of the self-determination of the speech communities (Fishman, 1991); while Pine and Turin (2017) have claimed that the agency to revitalize language belongs to the policymakers as well as speakers.

Some Gaps in the Research on Maintenance, Shift and Revitalization and the Need for this Volume

As discussed above, the research on LM, LR and LS has contributed significantly to our understanding of these phenomena in general and has moved us forward in providing the answer to the questions ‘What are LM, LR and LS?’, ‘What causes or influences LM, LR and LS?’ and ‘What are the consequences of the maintenance and shift of languages for the structure and function of the languages?” However, some important questions have not been addressed in the earlier and current research:

(a) Are LM, LR and LS defined based on the number of speakers?

(b) What degree of competence is necessary for the speakers to qualify as legitimate speakers of the language?

(c) Does LM assume maintenance of a certain range of language structures and their use in a certain range of domains? In other words, when we say a language is maintained, do we assume all of its grammatical structures, styles and varieties are maintained in all functional domains (e.g. education, home, entertainment, literature, etc.)?

(d) Does LM assume all speakers in the community speak/maintain the language or is the language considered maintained even if a sub-group in the speech community speaks the language?

The chapters in this volume attempt to answer some of these questions in diverse linguistic, cultural and diachronic as well as synchronic contexts across the globe.

The most significant factor in the earlier work on language maintenance and shift in the current research is the omission of or marginal discussion on the role of religion in the maintenance and shift of languages. The three major works on the sociology of religion, Sociology of Religion (Dillon, 2003), Sociology of Religion: Contemporary Developments (Christiano et al., 2016) and The Oxford Handbook of the Sociology of Religion (Clarke, 2009) do not have a single entry which focuses on the relationship between religion and language. The research in sociolinguistics on language and religion – Crystal (1978, 1981, 2018), Ferguson (1976), Holt (2006), Samarin (1976), Sawyer (1999) and Sawyer and Simpson (2001), among others – has treated the language of religion as a variety or register of language and has primarily focused on identifying the features of its linguistic form and function. To the best of our knowledge, there is not much research available at present which focuses exclusively on the role of religion in the maintenance and shift of languages. As Crystal in his earlier paper (1981: 1) points out, there has been ‘hitherto very limited development of the subject by professional linguists and [a] large amount of descriptive and analytical work that still needs to be done’. Despite the paucity of research on LM, LR and LS in multilingual societies across the globe, David and McLellan state, ‘Language practices in religious domains offer opportunities to researchers to raise awareness that linguistic representations have conceptual and social underpinnings’ (David & McLellan, 2011: 275).

The chapters in this volume examine the phenomena of maintenance, revival and shift in bilingual or multilingual societies, where linguistic repertoires of speakers consist of two or more languages. Each chapter explores the role of religion in the maintenance, shift or revitalization of languages in different cultural contexts, under diverse socio-political conditions, and at different points in time. Data in this volume have been collected from multilingual societies from culturally, linguistically and religiously diverse communities across the world, which provide a wide range of rationales for maintenance, shift and revitalization of languages.

The authors critically examine the data and provide evidence to describe the role of religion in diverse contexts in LM, LR and LS. An important feature of this volume is that the chapters not only describe the phenomena of LM, LR and LS, but also provide evidence which challenges the hitherto established frameworks and their assumptions about maintenance, shift and revitalization of languages and thereby argues for the need for revision of the paradigm.

While the summaries of the chapters will be covered in the next section, we would like to highlight the major themes covered, which significantly contribute to our understanding of the phenomena of LM, LR, and LS. The theme of maintenance of identity emerges in many chapters as the motivating factor in language maintenance. Diglossia, which assumes functional distribution and co-existence of languages, is generally seen as a strategy for maintenance of many languages in multilingual societies. Maintenance of language can go hand in hand with maintenance of national and/or cultural identity. However, as Safran (2008) points out, this relationship is variable and is influenced by the socio-political factors in contemporary society. The research in the chapters shows that sociopolitical forces which threaten the religious, cultural, linguistic and/or national identity of communities display considerable variation across time and space. Colonization, migration to an alien country, social and political power hierarchy, and the language policy of administrations result in subverting sociolinguistic identities of the relatively powerless. The cases of Muslim youth in the UK (Chapter 3), Palestinians in Israel (Chapter 10), Malays in Singapore (Chapter 4), Hindus in the US (Chapter 8), Muslims in Nigeria (Chapter 12) and Brazilian Christians in the UK (Chapter 6) are some of the examples provided where language maintenance (or rev...

Table of contents

• Frontcover
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• Contributors
• 1 Introduction
• 2 The Decline of the Vernacular in the Chinese Religion in Singapore
• 3 Singing in My Language(s): How Religious Verse and Song Contribute to Minority Language Maintenance
• 4 The Role of Islam in the Language Maintenance of the Malay Muslims in Singapore
• 5 The Role of Religion in Written Language Maintenance and Shift in Uganda
• 6 Faith and Language Maintenance in Transnational Places of Worship: Brazilian Christian Settings in London
• 7 Language Shift but Religious and Cultural Maintenance: A Study of the Punjabi Sikh Community in Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
• 8 Does Religion Promote as well as Retard Language Maintenance in a Multilingual Context? Evidence from Hinduism and Buddhism
• 9 Religion and Education in the Preservation of Hebrew and Other Jewish Language Varieties
• 10 The Role of the Islamic Movement in Maintaining Standard Arabic in Israel
• 11 Development of Hebrew/English Biliteracy in a Jewish Day School: Issues of Language and Identity
• 12 Islamic Religious Education, Identity and the Arabic Language Among University Students in Southwestern Nigeria
• 13 Religion and Algerian Languages in the Education System
• 14 Epilogue