Irish Civilization

An Introduction

Arthur Aughey, John Oakland

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2013
• ISBN:
  9781317678496
• Edition: 1
• Topic: History
• Subtopic: World History
• Index: History

Irish Civilization provides the perfect background and introduction to both the history of Ireland until 1921 and the development of Ireland and Northern Ireland since 1921. This book illustrates how these societies have developed in common but also those elements where there have been, and continue to be, substantial differences.

It includes a focus on certain central structural aspects, such as:

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• the physical geography,

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• the people,

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• political and governmental structures,

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• cultural contexts,

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• economic and social institutions,

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• and education and the media.

Irish Civilization is a vital introduction to the complex history of Ireland and concludes with a discussion of the present state of the relationship between them. It is an essential resource for students of Irish Studies and general readers alike.

1
The Irish context

• ■ Prehistory: 10000/8000 BC–AD 400
• ■ Early Christian Ireland: 400–795
• ■ The Viking era: 795–1166
• ■ Anglo-Norman Ireland: 1167–1536
• ■ Reformation, sectarianism and revolt: 1536–1641
• ■ The Protestant ascendancy: 1641–1801
• ■ Union with Great Britain: 1801–1921
• ■ Opposition: Home Rule and the repeal of the Union
• ■ Partition and aftermath: 1921–
• ■ Contemporary attitudes
• ■ Exercises
• ■ Further reading
• ■ Websites

Many names have historically been given to the island of Ireland. The English term ‘Ireland’ has in modern times often referred to the second largest of a group of islands lying off the north-west coast of the European mainland. Its nearest large neighbour to the east is the island of Great Britain (Scotland, Wales and England), with which it has long been involved.

It is argued that ‘Ireland’ is a combination of modern Irish ‘Éire’, Old Irish ‘Ériú’ and the Germanic word ‘land’. ‘Ériu’ seems to be an early native form, which may have been derived from Old Celtic ‘Iveriu’ and later became ‘Éire’ and ‘Éirinn’. Other names originated outside the island, such as the Greek ‘Ierne’ around the first century. The Greek geographer, Ptolemy, initially referred to Ireland in the second century as Mikra Brettania (Lesser Britain) in contrast to Megale Brettania (Great Britain). He later identified Great Britain as Albion and Ireland as Iouernia (or Latin Ivernia), which may have been derived from existing indigenous names for a part or the whole of the island. It is said that the Romans later wrongly Latinized Iouernia as Hibernia or Scotia. By the nineteenth century, the Irish term ‘Éirinn’ was Anglicized as ‘Erin’, together with other symbolic personifications of the nation.

In this book, ‘Ireland’ describes the island before 1921. ‘Irish Free State’ is sometimes used for the independent state from 1921 to 1937, but the later constitutional title ‘Ireland’ is preferred for the whole period from 1921 to the present. The north-eastern part of the island from 1921 is referred to as Northern Ireland.

Ireland has had a long history, which is usually divided into generally accepted defining periods. However, commentators often give their own interpretations of what supposedly happened at particular times as they revise earlier theories or respond to new information.

The island has attracted international interest, especially since the start of the Troubles in Northern Ireland in the late 1960s. Discourses on Irish colonial occupation, economic crises, social deprivation, political conflict and sectarian violence have produced many popular and academic studies with very varying theories and interpretations. These reflect complicated constitutional, political, social, religious and cultural developments over the centuries, which are indicated in the following historical outlines.

Prehistory: 10000/8000 BC–AD 400

Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age) Ireland was probably uninhabited before 10000 BC and archaeological evidence suggests that the first people arrived in the island between 10000 and 8000 BC with the retreat of existing glaciers. They were initially nomadic Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) hunter-gatherers who travelled from Britain and Europe to the east and north coasts. From about 4000 BC, they were joined by Neolithic (New Stone Age) immigrants, who lived in more permanent communities and began to farm and cultivate the land. These people were followed around 2000 BC by Bronze Age metalworkers in copper, tin and zinc.

Between 600 and 100 BC, Celtic groups came to the country, who, together with Gaels from around 100 BC, formed the basis of a Celtic/Gaelic Irish society. They are believed to have travelled to Ireland sometimes through Great Britain but also from southern France and northern Spain. A number of kingdoms or independent tribes developed prior to the beginning of the Christian era and gradually became the provinces of Ulster, Leinster, Munster and Connaught, which were later based on ecclesiastical structures. Debate continues about who the Celts actually were; where their origins lay; when they came to Ireland; and whether their arrival was a large-scale military invasion. It is suggested that small, rather than large, numbers settled in Ireland, assimilated with the indigenous peoples, and shared linguistic and cultural similarities with other Celtic groups throughout Europe.

Early Christian Ireland: 400–795

Ireland, unlike much of Western Europe and England (55 BC–AD 410), had not been occupied by the Romans, although artefacts discovered south of Dublin in 2005 may be the remains of Roman trading stations, which might indicate a small Roman administrative presence. Ireland was largely unaffected by the prevailing foreign invasions of Europe after Roman withdrawal and experienced a peaceful early medieval period.

It is traditionally claimed that St Patrick and other monks introduced Christianity to pagan Ireland by 500–600 AD, although there is some evidence of a Christian presence on the island in at least the third century. Christianity was to play a dominant role in Ireland’s history, culture and conflicts, and the sixth and seventh centuries saw an expansion of Irish cultural life. The monastic model, rather than European diocesan structures, shaped the early Irish Church and society. Irish monks established monasteries and centres of learning in many parts of Britain and Europe in the post-Roman period between 410 and 800 AD.

Although there were cultural similarities between the various inhabitants of Ireland, the country was not united politically or militarily. Power was divided between different tribes headed by warring kings, who accepted the authority of regional overlords. Over these were the kings of the four main provinces. Tara in a smaller fifth province of Meath was the seat of the Ard Righ or High King. The High King was supposed to promote unity among the kings and to lead resistance to invaders. However, the High Kingship did not function well and the tribal system resulted in conflict rather than solidarity and common action.

The Viking era: 795–1166

The disunited country could not initially overcome regular Viking (Danish and Norwegian) attacks which started in 795 AD and continued in the ninth and tenth centuries. National weakness was illustrated by shifting alliances between Irish kings and Vikings to gain protection, power and possessions. The Vikings raided the country, its monasteries and the Christian culture. They founded Dublin, which served as a military base and later became a centre of commerce and government. The Vikings conquered significant parts of the island, but were overcome in the Battle of Tara in 980 and a rising by Dublin Viking and Irish forces was defeated in 1014 at Clontarf by the High King of Ireland, Brian Boru, and his allies.

PLATE 1.1 Dublin Castle has been central to Irish history since the Vikings built a fort here in 841–2. The castle dates from ca. 1228 and was the seat of British rule in Ireland until 1921. The Norman Record Tower is the oldest intact part of the castle. In the foreground is the Garda Memorial Garden opened in 2010.

Before and after this defeat Vikings settled in Ireland and assimilated with the indigenous population. They were an influential social, political and military presence; helped the growth of Ireland as merchants and traders; and built other market towns and ports such as Waterford, Wexford and Cork. Dublin replaced Tara as the capital and the Lord of Dublin effectively became the King of Ireland.

Anglo-Norman Ireland: 1169–1536

There had been some limited, if unsatisfactory, progress towards a united Ireland under a High King in the eleventh and early twelfth centuries, but this was broken in 1169 by the arrival of Anglo-Normans, who had earlier (1066) conquered England and Wales. When King MacMurrough of Leinster was deposed in 1166, he asked Henry II of England and Anglo-Norman nobles to help him regain his throne and repaid them with land in Ireland. The Anglo-Normans conquered Dublin and parts of Ireland in 1169 and in 1170 under Richard de Clare/Fitz Gilbert (‘Strongbow’). A period of significant political and religious change was then launched.

Ireland was under the political authority of Henry II, but he feared that Anglo-Norman landowners in Ireland would establish an independent state, which could be a threat to his power. Supported by Popes Adrian IV and Alexander III, he conquered Ireland in 1171 in what has been seen as the first colonization of the island. Henry proclaimed himself overlord of Ireland, was confirmed as Lord of Ireland by the Pope and recognized by church leaders.

PLATE 1.2 Carrickfergus Castle, Northern Ireland. The Norman castle lies on the North Antrim Coast Road by the shore of Belfast Lough. It was founded in 1177 by John de Courcy and completed by Hugh de Lacy in 1205. William III landed here in 1690 before travelling to Belfast and later to the Battle of the Boyne. ^© David Lyons/Alamy

Henry received permission from Pope Adrian IV to reform the Irish/Celtic Church whose beliefs were in conflict with the structures/theology of the Roman Church in Europe. Disputes between the two Churches had continued since the Synod of Whitby (664), which had been called to reconcile differences between them. A church administration based on monasteries was slowly replaced by one organized in dioceses, whose boundaries matched some existing kingdoms and provinces. Church structures were strengthened; the island was absorbed into the Angevin Empire; and the Catholic faith was to dominate Ireland in future centuries.

But the Anglo-Normans had not conquered the whole country and were restricted to the Pale. This term was first used in Ireland in 1495 by Edward Poynings to describe the fortified lowland region around Dublin ruled by the Anglo-Normans. Their language, customs, social hierarchy, agriculture, legal system and government were based on those of England. The Pale was defended militarily from the 1470s until the mid-1530s against attacks by the Irish.

The Anglo-Norman settlers were an important presence in Ireland for the next 400 years. They ended the power of Viking-influenced Ireland and introduced a new ruling class. Their descendants assimilated and married into Irish culture, and became known as Anglo-Irish or the Old English.

Powerful Anglo-Irish earls, such as Ormond, Desmond and Kildare, ruled lands beyond the Pale. Although they often acted as deputies for the English monarch, they were largely independent of the Crown. They conquered about two-thirds of the island, continued to fight among themselves and formed shifting alliances. The authority of English kings was restricted to Dublin and the Pale by the fifteenth century, and English power in Ireland seemed in danger owing to Irish expansionism and the cultural Gaelicization of Anglo-Norman settlers.

Reformation, sectarianism and revolt: 1536–1641

In 1500, Ireland was still a rural and agricultural country, although some towns were expanding. It had an identity, language and culture independent of England, whose rule was based in Anglo-Norman Dublin. This situation changed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries as a result of political and religious developments in Tudor England and Europe.

These periods saw the introduction of Protestantism into Ireland (begun in England by Henry VIII and culminating in the Protestant Settlement of Elizabeth I); the growth of sectarianism between Catholic and Protestant; the Catholic Counter Reformation against Protestantism; the plantation of Ireland (particularly Ulster) by Protestant settlers from England and Scotland; the decline of the Irish political order; and the significance of Ireland as a site for potential European military invasions. These events conditioned Irish history, but also strengthened English power in Ireland.

The Reformation and Counter Reformation affected English and Irish religious identities. By the 1560s, European countries such as England were Protestant, while Italy, Spain, France and Ireland remained Catholic. Conflicts between Churches led to civil and spiritual change in some countries, and territorial disputes and political ambitions among nations and monarchs.

Catholic Ireland was seen as strategically important in the European power struggle; a menace to Protestant England’s security; and a base for English dissidents, Irish rebels or foreign enemies. Europe was moving from feudalism and advances in military technology encouraged European expansionism. Henry VIII countered these threats and opposed the growing power and militancy of Irish chieftains.

Such pressure led to rebellion against English rule in areas around the Pale by Thomas Fitzgerald, Earl of Kildare and other Irish nobles in 1534 and 1539. Henry subdued the revolts, placed Ireland under direct rule, strengthened English rule in the Pale, was declared Head of the Church in Ireland in 1536 and in 1541 became King of Ireland. Religious change and Henry’s break with Rome in 1534 had a major impact in Ireland, but most Irish people and the descendants of the original Anglo-Norman settlers (Old English) did not accept the Protestant Reformation or the establishment of an Anglican Church of Ireland.

Edward VI continued the Reformation in Ireland until the brief restoration of Catholicism under Mary I. But Henry VIII’s younger daughter, Elizabeth I, secured Protestantism with her Church Settlement (1559) and created deputies to rule in Ireland on behalf of the monarch. After anti-English, anti-Protest...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• List of plates
• List of figures
• List of tables
• Preface and acknowledgements
• Chronology of significant dates in Irish history
• 1 The Irish context
• 2 The country
• 3 The people
• 4 Religion
• 5 Cultural contexts
• 6 Politics and government
• 7 International relations
• 8 Irish legal systems
• 9 Economic systems
• 10 Social systems
• 11 Education
• 12 The media
• Index