Contextualizing Eschatology in African Cultural and Religious Beliefs

Ibigbolade S. Aderibigbe

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2019
• ISBN:
  9781351032964
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Theology & Religion
• Subtopic: Christian Theology

Contextualizing Eschatology in African Cultural and Religious Beliefs addresses the African consciousness and nuances of eschatological beliefs as part and parcel of the holistic African Indigenous worldviews within the context of the people's traditional heritage.

The concept of eschatology is usually explained from the perspective of "endtimes" in relation to either the human individual or the cosmos. Within these contexts, the primary interests, particularly with regard to human eschatology, have centred on the questions of death, afterlife, immortality, destiny, judgment, reward and punishment, and the final destination or eternal "home" of humans. This book explores the characteristic nature, the modes, the process as well as the dynamics associated with the various features culminating the functional expression of the "reality" of eschatological beliefs demonstrated in varied but fundamentally the same subject matter of practices among different African ethnic groups. It also discusses the influences of other religious traditions, particularly Christianity and Islam, on contemporary African eschatological thoughts and their attendant consequences.

This book will be of interest to students and scholars of African studies, eschatology, religious studies, and the philosophy of religion.

1 Introductory: universal concepts of eschatology

Definitions, developmental explanations, and beliefs in major religious traditions

Introduction

It can be conveniently argued that the concept of eschatology is a universal one, particularly as a religious “theological doctrine.” Given this understanding, it is only appropriate to begin any discourse on it, even if such a discourse is focused on a particular religious tradition, from general theoretical and experiential themes of providing some background in definitions, historical developments, and typologies. This chapter is therefore designated “Introductory Chapter” focusing on exploring various definitions of eschatology, its historical development as arguably a universal religious and cultural phenomenon, and finally its beliefs and practices as associated with different world cultures and religious eschatology as authentic and viable theological doctrine on the origins and final destinations of traditions—the major ones being Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and selected Asian religions. However, the ultimate objective of the discourse in this introductory chapter is aimed at providing a general background to the book’s exploration, in subsequent Chapters 2–8 of the significance of eschatological beliefs and practices in the African cultural and religious worldviews—albeit African humans and the universe.

Definitions of eschatology

The concept of eschatology has been defined in diverse ways and forms representing different perspectives and understandings. In addition, the beliefs and practices of eschatology have been explained and approached through prisms reflecting evolving historical developments shaped by different religious cultures and traditions. It is important to note that taken holistically, the concept of eschatology, as represented in beliefs and practices, has evolved patterns of differences in unique peculiarities to particular religious traditions or cultures as well as common features denoting agreements in contents, processes functionalities, and ultimate outcomes of nearly all religious traditions and cultures. These peculiarities have ultimately shaped the diverse, but often times complementary definitions and explanations of the concept. These have ranged from etymological approach to the functional or experiential engagement of eschatological beliefs and practices.

When it comes to definitions of eschatology, there are those who have approached the task etymologically. One of such people is Werblowsky (1987). According to him, the term “eschatology” is derived from the meaning of two combined Greek words, eschatos “last” and logy “study.” This literary interpretation of eschatology essentially depicts an original notion of the term having to do with what is meant by the end of things or last things. In siding with this form of definition, it is the view of Henderson (1981) that the concept of eschatology should not be regarded as just a doctrine dealing with last thing but also, and perhaps more importantly, how history itself will end. Johnson (1989) also shares this etymological conception of eschatology.

However, the term “eschatology” has also been defined focusing on its functional dimensions. If this is the route employed, then it should be properly viewed as deriving from the wider scope of etymological meanings that are restricted to religious traditions’ beliefs and practices. Eschatology can then be defined as discourses and teachings about last things, such as life after death, final stage of the world, and end-times for both humans and the cosmos (Schwarz, 2000). This term applies to a very particular area of religious belief and practice. The term seems not to have come into use until the last several centuries, though its subject matter has, of course, been present for millennia.

In sum and as a form of universal labeling, particularly in referencing the theological doctrinal demotions of eschatology in different religious traditions, the definition offered by Mayemba (2009) should suffice. He states:

Generally speaking, eschatology is the theological doctrine of the ultimate things, of the last or final days, of the world to come, of life after death. It is a theological investigation or a religious quest about the ultimate meaning and the destiny of the world and of human beings. In this sense, eschatology has a teleological dimension. It deals with expectation, with hope, with death, with the future. Its relevance lies on the belief that not everything about human beings is over after death, that death is not human beings’ radical end and absolute destination, and that there is something beyond.

(20..:1)

In further explanation of the dynamics of time and space in the theology of eschatology, using the Christian notion, Mayemba (2009). states that eschatology should not be seen as exclusively a futuristic doctrine; rather, its dynamics capturing the present and the past is very relevant, particularly in a people’s experiential tools of remembering the past for the sustenance and authentication of the present and future (the not-yet-there). It is also about the present (the already-there) and the past, the memory of the past. In giving credence to this view, Tracy D. (1998) uses the Christian apocalyptic theme as contained in the expectation of the Second Coming of Jesus Christ, called the Parousia. An eschatological theology approached with this expectation in view would denote the recognition at least in the Christian perspective and as opined by Tracy that “the gift of the spirit of the Lord to the present is also a promise for the future and a disclosure of the true meaning of the past” (269).

Origin and historical developments of eschatological concept

The origin of the concept of eschatology and the history of its development into theological doctrines of different religious traditions and cultures have been viewed as part of human origination. From origination, the development has also been described as being consistent with human developmental stages from the very rudimentary to the contemporary. The history of this phenomenal development can only be given very brief accommodation here. An archaeological survey of pieces of evidence is traceable to a rudimentary concept of eschatology that is rooted of human fundamental concept of immortality. However, this concept cannot be separated from the history of humanity (as gradual as they may be) and of the religious consciousness about things to come (the end of both individual and corporate existence), not just for the individual human being but also, and unavoidably, involving the cosmos—the universe occupied by humanity and other beings along with other natural elements. There is no doubt that what may be termed as ancient or primitive eschatology was consequent upon the very early human awareness of the dualistic notion of body and spirit (soul) composition of human nature known as “animism”—that is the idea of the body being animated with spirit (soul).

From the rudimentary consciousness described above, the next stage is characterized as that of advanced epistemology. This stage represents a higher dynamics of human consciousness depicting a higher level of understanding of eschatological theme as religious theology. Such understanding, no doubt, was grounded on the much developed human consciousness that was able to grapple with much more complex social organization and knowledge of natural science. With this prowess, humans developed the all-important consciousness of retribution. This consciousness projected hope for future consequences of reward or punishment from present acts or behaviors, even beyond the earthly domain.

In addition, there was the development of scientific knowledge, particularly in the observation of planetary and solar movements. The awareness indicated the notion of a futuristic end of the present circle and renovation after destruction. This suggested a kind of life after death for the planet.

Furthermore, humans began to develop the concept of future life. This concept was indeed associated with the idea of cosmic objects being worshiped for possessing spirits that may be a furtherance of the belief in animism at the primitive age. Then as consequence of the concept of retribution that may transcend mortal life on earth, the belief in judgment after death became fashionable. This was to provide for the adjudication of right or wrong actions done while on earth.

It should be noted, however, that the historical development of eschatological concepts over the two stages described above cannot be separated from the evolving eschatological theological doctrines of various world religious traditions as they originate and develop. The next segment examines the shaping and elucidation of these theological doctrines of six notable world religions such as Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Zoroastrianism.

Eschatology as theological doctrines in different world cultures and religious traditions

It has been augured with considerable obvious evidence that the doctrine of eschatology has been most distinctively and fully developed in the Judeo-Christian tradition. However, this position has not in any way disputed the fact that varied features of eschatological doctrines are found in most, if not in all, religions (Carpenter, 1995). Indeed, features of eschatology associated with the knowledge of death and afterlife have been part of different human cultures as we have alluded to above. Interestingly, such doctrines were not limited to just human individual eschatology in the form of an expected end but also an inclusive speculation about the end of the cosmos, characterized by devastating natural phenomena as floods, earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions, among others (Dickey, 1876). It is significant to point out as Macculloch (1955) opined that one of the many fascinating features of eschatology as they developed through the antiquity age to the contemporary times is that one form or the other of it has been found, for example, among the “primitive” peoples of Egypt, Persians, and Romans, among others.

Based on this linage of developments, it can be deduced that eschatology, in diverse beliefs and functionalities, cannot but be part of theological doctrines of various religious traditions as they grapple with the questions of life and death—origin and end of human life and the world.

Eschatological theology in Judaism and Christianity (Judeo-Christian): origin and development

The origin and development of eschatological theology in Judaism and Christianity should in our estimation be approached as a continuum. Thus, the discussion here is intentionally conducted under a joint prism of how the various features of eschatology have evolved taking into consideration the historic religious connections between the two faiths, with Christianity being a ‘claimed’ successor and fulfillment of Judaism. This succession dynamics is vividly demonstrated in the sequence of the scriptures of the two religions as the Old Testament (Judaism) has been designated as the progenitor, laying the grounds for and foregrounding of the New Testament (Christianity).

In this regard, since Christianity emerged from within Judaism, an understanding of Christian eschatology must essentially begin with exploring the origin and development of eschatological theology in the Old Testament. This becomes more appropriate given the indications that such eschatological thoughts constituted the foundation of what later became the very continued features and themes of eschatological doctrines in Christianity as a separate or independent religion.

Consequent upon the above, the exploration of the origin and development of eschatology in Judeo-Christian tradition(s) follows the thoughts of John Collins (1998). Collins begins his exploration of the origin and deployment of eschatology in the Judeo-Christian tradition(s) by disputing the claim that traced the origins of apocalypse (which can be regarded as a pseudo-name for planet eschatology) to the teachings of Zoroaster. Rather, his position is that it actually originated with the Hebrew prophets. In particular, he submitted that prophet Amos who lived in the 8th century bce was the person to proclaim “the end,” though within an immediate historical context of the destruction of the northern kingdom of Israel. It is very instructive that Collins tracing the origins of eschatology to prophet Amos significantly buttresses the distinction that characterized features of eschatology in the context of separating realized and future eschatology, at different stages of the development of its theology. For example, in the case of Amos, the eschatological theology is a realized one. This is because the events predicted in the prophecy constituted a consequence of contemporary events, and are projected to occur in the immediate future. Though it may be argued that the term “immediate” is a subjective one, there is no denying that it refers to a temporal scope that may occur as immediate as this very night, or may be extended to the end of the generation that received Amos’s prophecy. This is germane based on the fact that Amos’s prophecy was a response to the current events of his time in foretelling an imminent demise. However, Amos message, though, represented the existence of a sovereign Hebrew northern kingdom; thus, as the “end of the present age” (realized eschatology), it could be interpreted as covering and serving later end-time prophecies—as indeed it was done. This of course would substantiate the futuristic theme of eschatology.

It is instructive that, taken together, the Judeo-Christian religious tradition(s), and even as separate or independent traditions, have been characterized by features of both realized and future eschatologies. Indeed in many circumstances, one borrows the imagery of the features used from the other. This is why it is almost impossible to construct a single or separate history of the origin and development of eschatology for Judaism and Christianity. This is not to assume that differences in use and interpretation of texts with regard to eschatology have not occurred. Indeed, they have taken into consideration emerged differences in the Christian doctrines of messianism and final judgment as different from the Judaic ones.

It is with all the above in view that, in agreement with Collins (1998), the eras of Jewish prophecy with regard to the growth of Jewish eschatology can be divided into three segments. The three eras or phases could also be said to have preceded and arguably shaped the rise and growth of Christianity with its eschatological doctrines.

The first, as described by Collins (1998), was the post-exilic. This was when the Persian Empire facilitated the return of Hebrew exiles to Jerusalem and Judah. It was the policy of the Persian rulers to allow their subjects to practice their own religion and culture, so long as they paid tribute. This policy facilitated many of the people displaced by the Babylonians return to Judah, with the objective of rebuilding Jerusalem, as well as the Temple.

Within this context several motifs in post-exilic prophecy reflected this scenario, particularly with the contacts the returnees had had with the people and religious culture in the exile experience under two different “masters” that are particular to that period. These new themes may be as a result of contact with other religions, or pertain to particular events in the new historical context. The first of these motifs is the resurrection of the dead. While Collins notes the presence of a similar prophecy in Ezekiel 37, dated to exilic period, he claims that the theme is more developed in the post-exilic period, particularly in reference to the restoration of Israel, juxtaposed of course with their former masters, the Babylonians (Collins, 1998). The resurrection of the dead is foundational to Christian eschatology and seems to have its root in the post-exilic response to this contrasting restoration and destruction. In the essence of time and space, we will limit our inquiry to one trait or characteristic per period.

The next period was the Hellenistic period. The period historically followed the resettling of Judah under Persian rule, and the subsequent centuries where the influence of Persia faded and was replaced with the advent of the Greek, particularly the Macedonian Empire under Alexander the Great. This was when Alexander conquered the land of Israel including most of the Persian Empire in the 330s (bce). Thus began the age of Hellenization in Israel, and it was also marked by the influence of Greek religion and culture. According to Collins (1998), the first true Jewish apocalypse that encompassed eschatological thoughts were documented during this period, contained in the Book of Enoch that could be regarded as a composite book, with at least five distinct works. It must be noted, however, that the book was written pseudonymously, in the name of Enoch, not by Enoch himself, though in some cases they do refer back to the context of the character himself. What is important in the context of the origin of eschatology here is that it would then represent the oldest Hebrew text, known as Watchers tradition, that some scholars have identified as containing the very ba...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Series Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Table of Contents
• Foreword
• Preface and Acknowledgment
• 1 Introductory: universal concepts of eschatology: definitions, developmental explanations, and beliefs in major religious traditions
• 2 Eschatology in African traditional cultural and religious worldviews: general overview
• 3 Cosmological and ontological prelude to African eschatology: the dynamics of creation and nature of the universe and humans
• 4 Human nature, rites of passage, death, and funeral rites: “gateways” to African eschatological beliefs and practices
• 5 The afterlife, ancestral cult, and African eschatology
• 6 Reincarnation and African eschatological paradigms
• 7 End-times: of final judgment and end of cosmos in African eschatological prism
• 8 Contemporary influences, future of African concept of eschatology, and conclusion
• Index