Translating and Interpreting in Korean Contexts

Engaging with Asian and Western Others

Ji-Hae Kang, Judy Wakabayashi, Ji-Hae Kang, Judy Wakabayashi

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2019
• ISBN:
  9780429958335
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Languages & Linguistics
• Subtopic: Translating & Interpreting
• Index: Languages & Linguistics

The focus of this volume is on how the people of the Korean Peninsula—historically an important part of the Sinocentric world in East Asia and today a vital economic and strategic site—have negotiated oral and written interactions with their Asian neighbors and Europeans in the past and present through the mediation of translators and interpreters.

These encounters have been shaped by political, social, and cultural factors, including the shared use of the Chinese writing system in East Asia for many centuries, attitudes toward other Asians and Westerners, and perceptions of Korean identity in relation to these Others. After exploring aspects of historical interactions, the volume addresses how the role and practice of translation and interpreting have recently evolved as a result of the development of digital technology, an increase in the number of immigrants, and changes in political and cultural dynamics in the region. It covers a range of historical and contemporary aspects, genres, and venues that extend beyond the common yet restrictive focus on literary translation and includes discussions of translator training and academic studies of translation and interpreting in Korea.

Part I

1Official interpreters of the Joseon period

Okkyoung BAEK

1 Introduction

This chapter considers the roles and status of official interpreters during the Joseon dynasty, a kingdom that ruled the Korean Peninsula from 1392 until colonization by Japan in 1910. Within Translation Studies, investigations into interpreters’ roles have mostly focused on contemporary conference or community interpreting settings (see Chapter 11 in this volume). Based on historical findings, this study instead explores the roles, status, and aspirations of official interpreters against the background of the Joseon dynasty’s foreign relations and sociocultural institutions. Because interpreters in many parts of the world have “historically belonged to minority groups of one type or another” (Baker and Saldanha 2009, xv), this chapter also examines the extent to which official Joseon interpreters fit that description.

2 Joseon foreign relations and the management of interpreting

The Joseon dynasty belonged to an East Asian world order that was centered on the Chinese Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1912) dynasties. Joseon’s relations with the Ming and Qing were founded on an ecumenical vision that divided the world into the “civilized” and “barbarians” (hwa-i gwan 華夷觀). These relations were structured by the rituals of investiture and tribute. China, as the place of “Central Efflorescence” (Junghwa 中華), was regarded as the cultural and geographical center of the world. Relations established through investiture and tribute provided the mechanisms for “barbarian” countries on China’s periphery to interact with China and belong to a unitarily constructed Sinocentric world order. These relations established a hierarchy that recognized China, the state that conferred investiture, as the center (for details, see Fairbank and Têng 1960; Fairbank 1968; Nishijima 2009). Therefore, Joseon, as a tributary kingdom, received investiture from Chinese emperors, used Chinese reign eras, and presented regular and timely tributes.

Joseon also enacted a restrictive policy regarding maritime interactions with foreign entities. These “sea prohibitions” were also a result of Chinese influence (Lim 1997, 43–46). The Ming and Qing allowed regular trade only with neighboring vassal states, and only under the banner of tribute exchanges. They not only prohibited visits from foreign merchant ships and clandestine trade, but also barred Chinese from engaging in maritime trade. Because commerce with China could take place only through state management, Joseon had no choice but to follow these rules.

The Joseon government also needed to enact a proactive maritime prohibition policy to defend against the threat of Japanese pirates. These marauders had been a problem since the end of the Goryeo dynasty (918–1392), Joseon’s predecessor. With the exception of private trade with maritime merchants who could anchor only at designated ports, the Joseon government barred all maritime commercial activity and blocked the flow of foreign capital. It tried to control all communication and commercial activities.

Joseon’s foreign policy mainly focused on the large mainland Chinese states of the Ming and Qing, but it also engaged in “neighborly relations” (gyorin 交隣) with the Japanese, Ryukyus, Jurchens, and Mongols. In the case of “neighborly relations,” which entailed diplomatic relations with countries from a position of parity, with a relative balance of power between them, the Japanese and Jurchens were considered more important, especially as a result of the Mongol loss of power following the collapse of the Yuan dynasty (1279–1368) and infrequent exchanges between Joseon and the Ryukyu kingdom. The Japanese were permitted to carry out trade in designated ports in Gyeongsang Province in the south of the Korean Peninsula. Joseon acquired Japanese goods such as copper, sulfur, pigments, and dyes, and in turn the Japanese obtained grain, clothing, rice, cottons, and books. For the Jurchens in the north, whose economic livelihood was based on a semiagricultural and seminomadic production mode, Joseon, an agricultural country, provided grain, garments, and agricultural implements. The Joseon encouraged the Japanese and Jurchens to submit peacefully, enacting a policy of suasion and attraction based on soft power. Nevertheless, it also resorted to coercive or military means when faced with their illegal incursions.

The management of foreign affairs, which included state rituals and banquets, fell under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Rites (Yejo 禮曹). Also under its administration were the Office of Diplomatic Correspondence (Seungmunwon 承文院), which drafted diplomatic documents, and the Office of Interpreters (Sayŏgwŏn 司譯院), responsible for communicating the intentions of foreign groups and managing interactions with them (Yijeon 吏典in Gyeongguk Daejeon 經國大典). The official interpreters belonged to this bureau. Each officer specialized in a language of the neighboring countries, that is, Chinese, Japanese, Jurchen, or Mongolian.

The selection and education of interpreting officers were directed by the government, which exercised strict control over them. One reason was that the government wished to monopolize all interactions with foreign groups, including diplomacy, commerce, and cultural exchange. Therefore, it did not permit any personal or private interactions, and it demanded that all official interpreters work solely for the interests of the state. Another reason was that during the Goryeo period, the state had suffered the depredations of Mongolian-language interpreters who abused their power. The Mongols invaded Goryeo in the early 13th century which resulted in Goryeo’s surrender in 1259 and the century-long intervention of the Mongols. Many interpreters of Mongolian had become familiar with the Mongolian language on their own, but they often lacked loyalty toward the state (perhaps being even more loyal to the Mongols) and pursued their own interests. With the growth of Mongol power, this phenomenon only became more prevalent. In response, the Goryeo state established the Office of Interpretation (Tongmungwan 通文館) in 1276 and systematized the training of interpreting officials. Through this office, the state could vet each individual’s character and train them on its own, ensuring that they would not undertake actions such as leaking state secrets to the Mongols (Baek 2006a, 25–33). After the establishment of the Joseon dynasty, the state continued these Goryeo policies.

3 The functions of official interpreters

3.1 Interpreting

In the Joseon period, interpreting officers were basically responsible for interpreting Chinese, Japanese, Jurchen, and Mongolian. They were posted at the central Office of Interpreters or assigned to provincial frontier areas or other places of contact and exchange, where they also played important roles in the import of goods and acquisition of intelligence.

Interpreting during the entertainment of foreign emissaries or as a member of an embassy to a foreign state constituted a large part of interpreters’ duties. Interpreting for a foreign emissary began as soon as the interpreter received the dignitary at the border. From there the interpreters accompanied the entourage during its entire journey to the capital, Hanyang. On arrival, the interpreters stayed with the envoys in their hostels, either the Taepyeonggwan 太平館 for the Chinese, Dongpyeonggwan 東平館 for the Japanese, or Bukpyeonggwan 北平館 for the Jurchens. They were responsible for consecutive interpreting the entire time. When the emissaries met the king, the interpreters would interpret by the king’s side as the “royal interpreter” (eojeon tongsa 御前通事) (Seongjong Sillok 成宗實錄, 1: 6b December 4, 1469). Their roles, however, involved not just interpreting but also surveillance and reporting of the foreign envoy’s activities, regulation of commercial activities at the envoy’s living quarters, and informing visitors regarding the Joseon court’s protocols.

When Joseon embassies visited China or Japan, they were accompanied by official interpreters. Depending on the importance of the embassy or the regions through which they traveled, an embassy’s size ranged from several dozen people to up to nearly 500 individuals. A single embassy could take up to several months. An embassy was generally headed by a chief envoy and an assistant envoy, who were in charge of accomplishing a specific diplomatic mission. There was also a recording official, responsible for enforcing regulations. The interpreters were in charge of communication and managing the practical affairs of the mission. Few other officials were competent in foreign languages, so the success of a mission could depend greatly on the linguistic ability or professional competence of the interpreter.

One or two at a minimum and up to nearly 20 interpreters would accompany each mission. The individuals selected for diplomatic missions had to be experienced in a variety of matters. They had to be familiar with procedures for properly communicating their state’s affairs to the relevant agencies in the country they visited and had to cultivate proper connections with important figures in these countries.

3.2 Interstate trade

The interstate trade that official interpreters were responsible for was of great economic significance. Whether in the early or late Joseon period, it was through envoy missions that the Joseon interacted with foreign states. Civilian-level trade was for the most part nonexistent, and envoy trade during an envoy mission consisted for the most part of trade with the Ming and Qing. There were two kinds of envoy trade. The first was known as tributary trade. This was ...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Series Information
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• List of illustrations
• List of contributors
• Note on transliteration
• Introduction
• Part I
• Part II
• Index