Policing and Psychology

Nicholas Blagden

• Publisher: Learning Matters
• Year: 2012
• ISBN:
  9780857254665
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Social Sciences
• Subtopic: Criminology
• Index: Social Sciences

This book draws on a range of psychological theories, concepts and research to explore the role and relevance of psychology to modern day policing. It focuses on key issues including psychological theories of criminal behaviour, interpersonal skills, stereotyping and prejudice, profiling, the psychological effects of crime on victims, and burnout and stress on offiers. The text is underpinned by reflectie activities and case studies encouraging a critical understanding of psychology applied to policing practice. This book provides an accessible and up-to-date textbook for those studying and teaching policing, psychology and criminology.

1	Policing and psychology: an introduction

This book is written at a time of change and uncertainty within the police force: government cuts, recruitment freezes and demands for increased public satisfaction and targets mean that job demands and pressure are likely to increase. As police management has become more professional and organised, there has become a greater appreciation of the contribution psychology can make to various aspects of policing. Indeed, psychological research has been influential in police training, police officer recruitment and selection, understanding stress and burnout, as well as contributing to specialist areas such as offender profiling and hostage-taking incidents (Kapardis, 2010). Perhaps one of the most important areas in which psychology has had an impact is in police–public relations, for example interactions with the general public, victims and offenders. This has played a crucial role in police training, where police officers are taught important skills such as listening and communication, effective decision-making, conflict-resolution, stress awareness, and stereotype and prejudice formation (Reiser, 1982; Reiser and Klyver, 1987; Sprackman, 2000; Skolnick, 2008). This is important as Goldstein has noted that complaints arising from police-citizen contacts account for much of the attention the police receive (1994, p323).

Police work is thus influenced by a range of dynamic psychological factors and understanding these factors can help to inform various aspects of operational policing (Brewer and Wilson, 1995). The purpose of this book is to highlight some of the crucial ways in which psychology can be applied to policing. Psychology has been defined as the scientific study of the human mind and behaviour and is regulated in the UK by the British Psychological Society (BPS, 2011). As psychology is concerned with the mind and behaviour, its relevance to policing is obvious. For example, psychological processes are evident every time a police officer interacts with a victim, member of the public or an offender. Similarly, psychological processes can be noted when using interview skills, for example when undertaking an investigative or cognitive interview or when the police request the assistance of a crime profiler. Given that psychology and psychological research are focused on mind and behaviour, it is little wonder that psychologists are increasingly interested in crime, criminals, criminal justice and rehabilitation (Reiser, 1982).

PRACTICAL TASK

Think about the different ways in which psychology can be applied to policing, then compile a list of all the aspects of police work that are influenced by, or involve psychology to some degree.

Police work and psychology

Sir Robert Peel was instrumental in creating and introducing the Metropolitan Police Force, with his initial aims for the modern police service still influential today. The police service is today governed by a tripartite system that was set up by the Police Act 1964. This Act outlined clear roles and responsibilities for the Home Secretary, the Police Authority (or committee as it was known at the time) and the Chief Constable. The purpose of this tripartite system was to ensure that there is no direct political interference in operational policing, while at the same time ensuring that the police were accountable, effective and efficient in their service (Blake et al., 2010). Blake et al. (2010, p15) highlight that the current aims of the police service are as follows.

• To uphold the law fairly and firmly.
• To prevent crime.
• To pursue and bring to justice those who break the law.
• To keep the Queen’s peace.
• To protect, help and reassure the community.
• To be seen to do all things with integrity, common sense and sound judgement.

There are aspects of psychology that are applicable to all of the modern aims of policing. Indeed, the application of psychology to policing is nothing new and some have noted that the profession of ‘police psychology’ was born at the National Symposium on Police Psychological Services, which was held by the USA’s Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in 1984 (Bartol, 1996). However, some suggest that it was much earlier than that, citing that Martin Reiser was the first person to be employed as a police psychologist in 1968. However, it may have been in Europe where the origins of policing and psychology lay. It has been suggested that psychologists were used as early as 1919 in Germany and that, in 1966, Munich’s police department had a full-time police psychologist employed to train police officers in various patrol-related issues (Bartol, 1996). However, the fit between psychology and policing has not always been an easy one and scepticism still remains between psychologists and police officers. The police have had a tendency to view psychologists as ‘fuzzy-headed’, not grounded in reality, ‘cloud nine’ thinkers and ‘dogooders’, while psychologists have viewed the police as ‘insensitive’ and preferring brawn over brains (Ainsworth, 2002). Police perceptions may, in part, also be mediated by public views, which still tend to be that psychology is unscientific (Lilienfield, 2011).

There is now a growing mutual respect between the two disciplines, with psychology being recognised as extremely helpful in aiding police officers to understand and explain various phenomena related to police practice. Indeed, over the past two decades there has been a sustained increase in research on police psychology, which has even led to it being recognised by the American Psychology Association (APA) as a proficiency in professional psychology (Aumiller and Corey, 2007; Snook et al., 2009). Psychologists and psychological services employed by the police authorities, particularly in the UK, still remain low. There are psychologists who offer counselling services to the police and who are consulted in serious crime cases or for expertise in profiling. There is also the emergence of ‘behavioural investigative advisers’ (BIAs), who provide support for the investigation of serious crimes, including risk assessment, case linkage, interview strategy and cold case reviews (NPIA, 2011). However, while BIAs are becoming routine in serious crime cases, there are only five employed full time with over thirty who are consulted externally (NPIA, 2011).

In the USA the profession of police psychology is much better known, with many more full-time police psychologists employed. Their roles are also varied and diverse, and are not just based around criminal profiling and serious crimes. Scrivner (1994) found that police psychologists were employed more for their mental health services (e.g. counselling and ‘well-being’ training) and evaluations. Bartol (1996) found that police psychologists spent most of their time on screening (i.e. police officer recruitment) and counselling, with only 10 per cent on operational activities such as profiling, hostage negotiation and so on. Research also suggests that, in the USA, around 30–50 per cent of police departments use psychological services for training purposes and 10–30 per cent for assistance in investigations (Snook et al., 2009).

Although this book is concerned with police psychology, its main aim is to explore the different and practical ways in which psychology can be applied and have utility for policing practice. The book is thus centred on applying psychological theory to practice and, through understanding the various psychological concepts covered in this book, students and officers will be equipped with knowledge that will be relevant to their work and could enhance their performance.

Structure of the book

This book draws on a range of psychological theories, concepts and research to explore the relevance of psychology to modern-day policing. The book focuses on issues that are relevant to policing practice and that will be of interest to serving police officers, trainee officers and students with an interest in policing and psychology. There is a focus on issues that have direct implications for policing practice, such as communication skills, interacting with victims, coping with stress and burnout and the process of forming stereotypes and attributions. It also considers the evidence for criminal profiling and investigative psychology and the psychological explanations of crime and criminal behaviour. The book’s chapters focus on the following areas.

In Chapter 2 the focus is on psychological theories of crime and criminal behaviour. An understanding of these theories will bolster knowledge on why certain people commit crimes. The theories that are explored are ‘psycho-biological’, which asks the question of whether crime is biologically or genetically driven. ‘Attachment’ theories focus on our early developmental experiences, particularly those with our parents or early care givers.

‘Personality’ theories as applied to criminal behaviour have attempted to uncover which personality types are likely to be more criminogenic and this chapter also explores whether there is a ‘police personality’. The chapter also considers cognitive theories, which would suggest that crime occurs due to thinking errors or faulty decisions. Each of the theories discussed is linked to policing and police work.

Chapter 3 focuses on stereotypes, attributions and prejudice, and how they can affect police work. It explores how we formulate stereotypes and how they can lead to prejudice. It also explores how we make attributions about behaviour and how prone to error these can be.

Chapter 4 focuses on the importance of communication, interpersonal and interviewing skills in policing. It outlines the process of investigative interviews and critically discusses the skills needed for effective interviews with offenders and victims.

Chapter 5 focuses on investigative psychology and criminal profiling, and discusses the merits and myths of offender profiling.

Chapter 6 focuses on victims of crime and the impact of victimisation on individuals. This is a crucially important chapter given that there is great focus within police authorities on victim satisfaction and a recognition that victims are key stakeholders in the criminal justice system.

Chapter 7 explores the issues of stress and burnout in police officers. It considers what stress is and offers effective ways of coping with stress, both in general and applied to policing.

Chapter 8 offers a brief concluding summary.

Ainsworth, PB (2002) Psychology and Policing. Cullompton: Willan.

Aumiller, GS and Corey, D (2007) Defining the Field of Police Psychology: Core domains and proficiencies. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 22(2): 65–76.

Bartol, CR (1996) Police Psychology: Then, now, and beyond. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 23: 70–89.

Blake, C, Sheldon, B and Williams, P (2010) Policing and Criminal Justice. Exeter: Learning Matters.

BPS (British Psychological Society) (2011) Psychology and the Public. Online at www.bps.org.uk/psychology-public/psychology-and-public (accessed 2 February 2011).

Brewer, N and Wilson, C (eds) (1995) Psychology and Policing. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Goldstein, H (1994) Controlling and Reviewing Police–Citizen Contact, in Barker, T and Carter, DL (eds) Police Deviance. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson.

Kapardis, A (2010) Psychology and Law: A critical introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Lilienfield, SO (2011) Public Skepticism of Psychology: Why many people perceive the study of human behaviour as unscientific. American Psychologist, 64(8): 644–58.

NPIA (National Policing Improvement Agency) (2011) Behavioural Investigative Advisors. Online at www.npia.police.uk/en/6852.htm (accessed 1 April 2011).

Reiser, M (1982) Police Psychology: Collected papers. Los Angeles, CA: LEHI.

Reiser, M and Klyver, N (1987) Consulting with the Police, in Weiner, IB and Hess, HK (eds) Handbook of Forensic Psychology. Chichester: John Wiley.

Scrivner, EM (1994) The Role of Police Psychology in Controlling Excessive Force. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.

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Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• Acknowledgements
• 1 Policing and psychology: an introduction
• 2 Psychological theories of crime and criminal behaviour
• 3 Policing, attributions, stereotypes and prejudice
• 4 Communication, interpersonal and interviewing skills
• 5 Investigative psychology and criminal profiling
• 6 Victims and the psychological consequences of victimisation
• 7 Stress, burnout, coping and policing
• 8 Conclusion
• Index