The Decadence of Delphi

The Oracle in the Second Century AD and Beyond

Kristin M. Heineman

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2017
• ISBN:
  9781317036272
• Edition: 1
• Topic: History
• Subtopic: Ancient History
• Index: History

Examining the final years of Delphic consultation, this monograph argues that the sanctuary operated on two connected, yet distinct levels: the oracle, which was in decline, and the remaining religious, political and social elements at the site which continued to thrive. In contrast to Delphi, other oracular counterparts in Asia Minor, such as Claros and Didyma, rose in prestige as they engaged with new "theological" issues. Issues such as these were not presented to Apollo at Delphi and this lack of expertise could help to explain why Delphi began to decline in importance. The second and third centuries AD witnessed the development of new ways of access to divine wisdom. Particularly widespread were the practices of astrology and the Neoplatonic divinatory system, theurgy. This monograph examines the correlation between the rise of such practices and the decline of oracular consultation at Delphi, analyzing several examples from the Chaldean Oracles to demonstrate the new interest in a personal, soteriological religion. These cases reveal the transfer of Delphi's sacred space, which further impacted the status of the oracle. Delphi's interaction with Christianity in the final years of oracular operation is also discussed. Oracular utterances with Christian overtones are examined along with archaeological remains which demonstrate a shift in the use of space at Delphi from a "pagan" Panhellenic center to one in which Christianity is accepted and promoted.

1 The history of Delphi

εἴπατε τῷ βασιλεῖ, χαμαὶ πέσε δαίδαλος αὐλά.

οὐκέτι Φοῖβος ἔχει καλύβαν, οὐ μάντιδα δάφνην,

οὐ παγὰν λαλέουσαν. ἀπέσβετο καὶ λάλον ὕδωρ.

Tell the Emperor: the cunningly wrought courtyard has fallen; Phoebus no longer holds the veil; nor the prophet[ic] laurel;

Nor the speaking spring, and the speaking water has dried up.¹

An unorthodox place to start an examination of Delphi is at the end. This is the Pythia’s supposed last reply, addressed to Oribasios, Emperor Julian’s personal physician, in c. AD 361/2. As the final extant oracular consultation, it marks the end of our record of prophecies issued at Delphi.² There is, however, an oracle issued regarding the birth of Honorius in AD 384 recorded by Claudian; he claims that the oracles of Ammon and Apollo at Delphi had been silent, but spoke again to inaugurate this occasion.³ Since the edicts forbidding oracular consultation had not yet been passed, it is possible that the oracle was still in operation. So there is no reason to deny that this oracle, or another one like it, could have been issued from Delphi in the fourth century AD. Despite the Christian sources for many of the late oracles, it is likely that the responses reflect a general fact that the oracle was still in operation to some degree. Still, not long after this response was issued, the oracular Apollo at Delphi was closed for good, one of the most symbolic ends to traditional Greek religion.

Shortly after these oracles were thought to have been issued, an edict of Theodosius Valentinian II and Arcadius closed all oracular temples and forbade all types of divination in AD 391.⁴ The summary of the law dictates that pagan sacrifice, worship of pagan idols, and worship in pagan temples is forbidden. The law further decrees that prosecutors of rank will be fined, but higher officials will pay a smaller amount than lower-ranking officials. Less than a decade later, an edict of Honorius and Arcadius closed all pagan temples and forbade sacrifices at any time and place.⁵ Still, it seems that the sanctuary at Delphi was not yet completely closed. A law passed in AD 424 suggests that the Pythian Games may still have been celebrated at that time, but it is likely that the oracles had stopped by then.⁶ The millennium-long practice, which had advised on some of the most important moments in Greek history, was over. Oracles were silenced by a legislative mandate issued by a Christian Roman emperor. To understand this eventual fate of Delphi, it is important to examine the development of the oracle in terms of its religious and political significance.

Delphi in the Archaic Period

The sanctuary’s rise to prominence can be attributed to several factors, which can be categorized generally as psychological, religious, political, and geographical. Delphi’s ascent in a psychological sense can easily be understood in terms of prophecy and divination. Anxieties, fears, and desires have plagued humanity since time immemorial and when normal interaction with the world did not provide solutions to these problems new approaches were developed. People noticed that invisible forces dominated the world, caused rain to fall and plants to grow, seasons to change, and the sun to rise. In this way, appealing to the gods through ritual can be viewed as a reasonable solution to the various unknowns of humanity. The supremacy of Delphi, in a religious sense, can be seen best through the hierarchy of divinatory practitioners distinguished by the Greeks. Soothsayers and magicians initially worked for the community to satisfy the psychological needs of the Mediterranean. Eventually, the polis developed through a unification of various settlements and small villages, and this resulted in the establishment of stabilized communities in certain regions.⁷ With this came the development of various forms of public worship including festivals, feasts, and sacrifices, creating a comprehensive and communal form of worship that superseded private worship; it is within this context that Delphi was established. The central location of the oracle facilitated a number of consultants to visit the sanctuary with relative ease, particularly compared to Dodona or Siwah, which were far more remote than Delphi.⁸

Greek society began to appeal to the divine forces, agreed upon by the community, for help regarding various issues. Some of the earliest poleis to consult Delphi did so regarding important matters of state, which in turn helped to carve out a sort of “national” identity for the Greeks.⁹ Thus, the beginning of a Panhellenic sanctuary began its long history. Since there was never any unified political development in Greece within the poleis, the Panhellenic sanctuaries served as a gathering place for all of Greece. Individuals from different poleis could meet there to share art, knowledge, diplomacy, competition, religious experience and in this sense, a “national” Greek identity. Delphi became an important center for all of Greece, and it is through these means that it continued to develop into a significant institution.

The establishment of the Delphic oracle appears in three separate mythological accounts. Sadly, none of these versions agree and are difficult to reconcile, so it is best to examine the archeological evidence surrounding Delphi’s foundation.¹⁰ Before the sanctuary gained Panhellenic status, the polis itself was already established, beginning in the Protogeometric period until c. 875/60 BC.¹¹ The Mycenaean (pre-polis) settlement at Delphi was extensive, but after the Mycenaean period, there is a gap of evidence until Delphi was “re-established” in the mid-ninth century, 60 years before monumental votives appeared. The emergence of votives suggests cult activity, but remained at a local level; it was not until the last quarter of the eighth century BC that oracular divination was developed.¹² From c. 800 BC, Corinthian interest at Delphi begins and further ties with northern regions in Greece were established, which helped strengthen relations with Thessaly. By the seventh century BC, consultations and dedications at Delphi are more extensive and constant; the sanctuary had gained Panhellenic status. However, Delphi is a particularly unique case regarding divination because, although the initiation of religious activity began on a local level, the sanctuary soon developed into a Panhellenic sensation. Here, the political aspect of Delphi’s rise to prominence becomes significant. Beginning with Corinth, Chalcis, and Sparta consulting the oracle in the eighth century BC, and Athens in the seventh century BC, Delphi became a tool for Greek communities to deal with unprecedented problems. As opposed to the interests of the elite, the problems were those of community, such as legislation, famine, drought, and over population. Many of these issues were brought to Delphi and often times the solution was colonization.

The importance of the topics as well as the inquirers presented to Apollo added to the fame and prestige of the oracle and the sanctuary, in particular colonization oracles, which allowed the cult of the Pythian Apollo to be spread throughout the Greek Mediterranean.¹³ Delphi also contributed to polis-formation by giving religious sanction to different problems raised by developing communities. Famously, Sparta’s Rhetra was approved by (or perhaps initiated by) Apollo at Delphi, and the consultation of Delphi on behalf of the Athenians regarding Cleisthenes and the Athenian Tribes.¹⁴ In this way, the needs and concerns of the elite were still important, but Delphi provided solutions to them within a communal context and this spread the fame and prestige of the oracle throughout many communities within Greece. Delphi, in time, became the religious authority of Greece and was sustained for centuries by this ancient tradition.

The political aspects of Delphi’s rise are intimately connected to the polis.¹⁵ Furthermore, the autonomy which Delphi enjoyed contributed to its long history. Several Sacred Wars were fought to preserve this independence and, early in Delphi’s operation, this degree of autonomy led to its success.¹⁶ Since the sanctuary was not bound by certain political alliances, the oracle quickly became a Panhellenic center open to Greeks and barbarians alike – many barbarians dedicated at Delphi, the first being the legendary King Midas of Phrygia, as well as Gyges and Croesus of Lydia.¹⁷ Indeed, Delphi was consulted by a variety of people and communities for several different reasons. The needs of consultants of Delphi are going to be different in the Archaic period from later periods. For example, the oracle was consulted frequently in the Archaic and Classical periods regarding colonization, however, by the Hellenistic period and beyond, the Mediterranean was largely settled, marginalizing one of the initial roles of the oracle. Concerns which were once brought to Delphi – problems that could not be resolved by a community consensus – eventually become obsolete, as we shall see.

Method of consultation

Once the Panhellenic shrine was up and running, the method of consultation was secured. How exactly the oracle operated has been one of the most contentious aspects of Delphic inquiry. The mechanism for divination has particularly fascinated Delphic scholars since antiquity. Sadly, the ancient sources leave much to be desired, as they do not record the specifics concerning the procedure of the oracle – perhaps it was either too widely known to be relevant or interesting to an ancient audience. However, a general image is suggested from the sources: consultants would travel to Delphi, offer a sacrifice to Apollo, and ask the priestess, the Pythia, their question. The Pythia would then descend into the adyton, or forbidden place, and commune with the god below the floor of the temple. It is here that the details of consultation become problematic. The Pythia would receive her inspiration from the god, in one form or another, and relay the oracles to the inquirer, often in hexameter verse. This picture actually conjures up more questions than it answers: What happened in the adyton? What mechanisms were thought to be the inspiration for the Pythia’s responses? And finally, how did the Pythia deliver these responses?

Most of these questions remain unanswered and speculative, but some elements may be revealed through our ancient sources. Parke and Wormell have outlined several key elements which seem to be necessary to Delphic oracular consultation, including the tripod, laurel leaves, and perhaps a vapor-emitting chasm as the source of the Pythia’s inspiration.¹⁸ Additional elements of consultation include lot-oracles and the temple, particularly the adyton; none of these elements have been agreed upon by scholars.¹⁹ Following Parke, there are several elements to the mantic procedure at Delphi that are certainly necessary for oracular consultation. Although the exact nature and contribution of these elements are still unknown, it is worthwhile to examine the potential role in order to better understand the oracular procedure at Delphi. It seems that the tripod facilitated some symbolic connection between Apollo and the Pythia, and this is supported by the story of Heracles’ theft of Apollo’s tripod to set up a rival oracle.²⁰ The episode is also recorded on the east pediment of the Siphnian Trea...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• Acknowledgments
• Abbreviations
• Introduction
• 1. The history of Delphi
• 2. Plutarch and the duality of Delphi
• 3. Delphi: sacred space and cultural memory
• 4. Theological oracles from Didyma
• 5. Theological oracles from Claros
• 6. Occult practices: astrology
• 7. Theurgy and soteriology
• Conclusion
• Index