Food Forensics

Stable Isotopes as a Guide to Authenticity and Origin

James F. Carter, Lesley A. Chesson, James F. Carter, Lesley A. Chesson

• Publisher: CRC Press
• Year: 2017
• Print ISBN:
  9781498741729
• eBook ISBN:
  9781351647687
• Topic: Technology & Engineering
• Subtopic: Biology
• Index: Technology & Engineering

Food forensics is a multi-disciplinary science involving advanced analytical techniques, plant and animal metabolism, and sophisticated data interpretation tools. This book explains how plants, and in turn animals eating those plants, assimilate stable isotopes and trace elements from their environments. It provides extensive reviews of the use of stable isotope and trace element measurements for the authentication of major food groups and how these can be used to detect fraudsters. The book emphasises the use of correct methods for sample preparation and measurement so that data can be compared to existing datasets, with a dedicated chapter discussing interpretations.

Contents

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Foreword

Preface

Acknowledgements

1. Isotope ratio measurements for food forensics

James F. Carter

1.1 Introduction

1.1.1 A bit of introduction

1.1.2 A bit of history

1.1.3 A bit of theory

1.2 Reporting and reference materials

1.2.1 Reporting isotopic composition

1.2.2 Traceability

1.2.3 VSMOW

1.2.4 VPDB

1.2.5 N_2AIR

1.2.6 VCDT

1.2.7 Practical reference materials

1.3 Isotope ratio measurements

1.3.1 Data normalization

1.3.2 Hydrogen measurements

1.3.3 Oxygen measurements

1.3.4 Carbon measurements

1.3.5 Nitrogen and sulfur measurements

1.4 Good practice

1.4.1 Good practice in practice

1.4.2 On-board (hidden) corrections

1.4.3 Optional corrections

1.4.4 Blank correction

1.4.5 Size correction

1.4.6 Drift correction

1.4.7 Memory correction

1.4.8 Summing up

1.5 Nomenclature

2. Sampling, Sample Preparation and Analysis

James F. Carter, and Lesley A. Chesson

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Sampling

2.2.1 Why do we sample?

2.2.2 How and what do we sample?

2.2.3 How big a sample?

2.3 Practical sampling and sample preparation

2.3.1 Sampling scallops—a practical example

2.3.2 Sample preparation—a practical example

2.4 Preparing samples for stable isotope ratio analysis

2.4.1 Preparing samples for δ²H measurements

2.4.2 Preparing samples for elemental analysis

2.4.3 Preparing samples for isotope ratio analysis of radiogenic elements

2.5 Isotope ratio analysis—bio-elements (H, C, N, O, and S)

2.5.1 The Elemental Analyzer (EA)

2.5.2 The Thermal Conversion EA (TC/EA)

2.5.3 Elementary good practice

2.5.4 Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry (IRMS)

2.5.5 Isotope Ratio Infrared Spectroscopy (IRIS)

2.6 Radiogenic elements (Sr and Pb)

2.6.1 Multi-collector ICP-MS (MC-ICP-MS)

3. Interpreting Stable Isotope Ratios in Plants and Plant-based Foods

James R. Ehleringer

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Our foods come from plants with different photosynthetic pathways

3.3 Photosynthetic pathway differences result in differences in plant carbon isotope ratios

3.4 Genetic variations can lead to differences in carbon isotope ratios

3.5 Drought histories are recorded by enrichment of carbon isotopes of C₃ plants

3.6 Shade and indoor growth are recorded depletions in carbon isotopes of plants

3.7 Different tissues can exhibit different ¹³C

3.8 The soil and atmospheric water environment is recorded as variations in hydrogen and oxygen isotopes in plants

3.9 Soil nitrogen sources are recorded in plant nitrogen isotopes

3.10 Fertilizer nitrogen isotope ratios

3.11 Sulfur isotopes in plants

3.12 Strontium isotopes in plants

3.13 Conclusions

4. Introduction to Stable Isotopes in Food Webs

Timothy D. Jardine, Keith A. Hobson and David X. Soto

4.1 Introduction

4.2 A brief history of isotopes in foodweb ecology

4.3 Key considerations in studying food webs with isotopes

4.4 The spatial template: Isoscapes

4.4.1 Isoscapes derived from gradients in plant physiology (C₃/C₄/CAM)

4.4.2 Isoscapes derived from gradients in plant N uptake (water stress, agriculture)

4.4.3 Isoscapes derived from sulfur biogeochemistry

4.4.4 Isoscapes derived from δ²H and δ¹⁸O in precipitation and surface waters

4.4.5 Isoscapes derived from strontium isotopes (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr) and other radiogenic elements

4.4.6 Marine isoscapes

4.5 Isotopic discrimination and physiological considerations

4.5.1 Elemental turnover

4.5.2 Isotopic discrimination

4.5.2.1 δ¹³C

4.5.2.2 δ¹⁵N

4.5.2.3 δ³⁴S

4.5.2.4 δ²H

4.5.2.5 δ¹⁸O

4.5.3 Factors affecting discrimination

4.5.3.1 Diet quality

4.5.3.2 Diet heterogeneity

4.5.3.3 Physiological status

4.6 Hypothetical case studies

4.6.1 Marine case study

4.6.2 Terrestrial case study

4.7 Combining tools

5. Data Analysis Interpretation Forensic Applications and Examples

Hannah B. Vander Zanden and Lesley A. Chesson

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Reporting of isotopic evidence in forensic casework

5.3 Common approaches for food isotope data analysis and interpretation

5.3.1 Exploratory data analysis techniques

5.3.2 Discriminant function analysis

5.4 Likelihood-based data analysis approaches in food forensics

5.4.1 Discrete approach

5.4.2 Continuous approach

5.5 Conclusion

6. Flesh Foods, or What Can Stable Isotope Analysis Reveal About the Meat You Eat?

Lesley A. Chesson

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Review of isotopic variation in flesh foods

6.2.1 A primer on strontium isotope variation

6.3 Flesh foods

6.3.1 Bovine foodstuffs

6.3.2 Ovine foodstuffs

6.3.3 Poultry

6.3.4 Porcine foodstuffs

6.3.5 Aquatic foodstuffs

6.4 Conclusion

7. Fruits and Vegetables

James F. Carter
With contributions from Karyne M. Rogers

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Fruits, vegetables, and isotopes

7.3 Fruit juices

7.3.1 Detecting the adulteration of fruits juices

7.3.2 Chemical profiling of fruit juices

7.3.3 Detecting the addition of cane/corn sugars

7.3.4 Detecting the addition of beet sugars

7.3.5 A case study

7.3.6 Authentication of NFC juices

7.4 Determining countries or regions of origin

7.4.1 Fruit juice and whole fruit

7.4.2 Vegetables

7.5 Tea

7.6 Coffee

8. Alcoholic Beverages I—Wine

James F. Carter and Federica Camin

8.1 Introduction

8.1.1 Everyone likes a drink!

8.1.2 The sources of metallic elements in alcoholic beverages

8.1.3 The sources of isotope ratio variations in alcoholic beverages

8.1.4 Fractions and lines—isotopic variations in water

8.2 Sample preparation and analysis

8.3 Wine

8.3.1 The global market for wine

8.3.2 Wine making (vinification)

8.3.3 Wine authentication—In vino veritas

8.3.4 Sparkling wines—bubbles or fizz?

9. Alcoholic Beverages II—Spirits, Beer, Sake and Cider

James F. Carter

9.1 Spirit drinks

9.1.1 The market

9.1.2 Legislation

9.1.3 Distillation and maturation

9.1.4 Spirit authentication

9.1.5 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)/congeners

9.1.6 Stable isotopes

9.2 Beer

9.2.1 Brewing

9.2.2 Beer authentication

9.3 Sake or Saké

9.3.1 Sake making

9.3.2 Sake authentication

9.4 Cider, Cyder, or Cidre

9.4.1 Cider making

9.4.2 Cider authentication

10. Stable isotope measurements and modeling to verify the authenticity of dairy products

Emad Ehtesham, Federica Camin, Luana Bontempo and Russell D. Frew

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Current trends in food fraud and milk adulteration

10.3 Milk composition

10.4 Production and processing of milk

10.5 Milk isotopic fingerprint, a result of biogeochemical influence

10.6 Preparation of milk components for isotopic analysis

10.7 Application of stable isotope analysis to dairy products

10.7.1 Infant formula

10.7.2 Cheese

10.7.3 Other dairy products

10.8 Predictive modelling

10.9 A case study of deliberate contamination

11. Edible Vegetable Oils

Federica Camin and Luana Bontempo

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Methods

11.3 Applications of IRMS for detecting the authenticity of edible vegetable oils

11.3.1 Olive oil

11.3.2 Sesame oil

11.3.3 Other edible vegetable oils

11.4 Conclusions

12. Organic Food Authenticity

Simon D. Kelly and Alina Mihailova
With contributions from Karyne M. Rogers

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Regulations

12.3 Discrimination between organic and conventional crops

12.4 Discrimination between organic and conventional products

12.4.1 Meats

12.4.2 Milk

12.4.3 Eggs

12.4.1 Fish

12.5 Conclusion

13. Odds and Ends, or, All That’s Left to Print

Lesley A. Chesson, Brett J. Tipple, Suvankar Chakraborty,
Karyne M. Rogers and James F. Carter

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Bottled water

13.3 Carbonated soft drinks

13.4 Caffeine

13.5 Vanilla/vanillin

13.6 Essential oils

13.7 Sweeteners

13.7.1 Honey

13.7.2 Maple syrup

13.7.3 Other sweeteners

13.8 Eggs

13.9 Vinegar

13.10 Other food products

13.11 Isotope effects during food preparation

13.12 Conclusion

Index

Foreword

The horse meat scandal of 2013 refocused global attention on food authenticity and origin and the harm that food fraud inflicts. Consumers are duped into spending money that some can ill afford, trust is lost and business reputations are damaged. Food safety is also compromised, for example the deaths that have arisen from counterfeit alcohol products. The subsequent Review by Professor Elliott*, in which I was privileged to play a part, described how ‘cutting corners’ elides through food fraud into ‘food crime’, an organised activity by groups which knowingly set out t...

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