Brain Research and Childhood Education

Implications for Educators, Parents, and Society

Doris Bergen, Michael Woodin

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2017
• ISBN:
  9781315465159
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Education General

Brain Research and Childhood Education provides teacher educators, education students (both in regular and special education programs), school psychologists, practicing teachers, and school leaders with a brief, readable distillation of the most up-to-date research on brain development and how it relates to optimum teaching practice in childhood and adolescence. This accessible reference uses cases to further illustrate how studies on brain development and various learning processes have implications for educators and psychologists as they strive to enhance children's cognitive, social, emotional, and academic learning opportunities.

1 Understanding the Brain

Men ought to know that from the brain, and from the brain only, arise our pleasures, joys, laughter and jests, as well as our sorrows, pains, griefs and tears. Through it, in particular, we think, see, hear, and distinguish the ugly from the beautiful, the bad from the good, the pleasant from the unpleasant … it … makes us mad or delirious, inspires us with dread or fear, whether by night or by day, brings sleeplessness, inopportune mistakes, aimless anxieties, absent-mindedness, and acts that are contrary to habit.

—Hippocrates
The Sacred Disease, in Hippocrates, trans. W. H. S. Jones (1923), Vol. 2, pp. 175

A Brief History of the Study of the Brain

The recent emphasis on findings from brain research gives the impression that study of the brain is a new phenomenon; however, the structures and functions of the brain have been of interest to physicians, philosophers, and researchers since earliest times. Archaeologists have found what appears to be deliberate drilling of holes in human skulls, perhaps to relieve pressure from brain injury. As early as 1700 BC, Egyptian doctors used surgery to treat brain injuries and observed the connections between the central nervous system, sensation, and locomotion. In the mummification process, however, Egyptians preserved the heart and liver but not brain matter (Finger, 1994, 2001). In 450 BC, Alcmaeon of Croton described the optic nerve as the “path of light to the brain” (Gross, 1998). Early interest in the brain was also evident in China, India, and Syria during the period from 400 BC to 100 AD (Finger, 1994, 2001; Gross, 1998). For example, the Chinese believed there was a connection between the eyes and the brain (i.e., the evil eye), and Nemesius of Syria proposed that the basic sensory and motor functions were located in the ventricles (cavities). This (incorrect) view was generally accepted throughout the Middle Ages. Greek and Roman philosophers and physicians also debated the functions of the brain. For example, Hippocrates drilled holes in the skull of patients to “restore balance of the humours.” Galen identified the autonomic and sympathetic nervous systems and stated that wounds of the brain affected the mind. However, he concluded that the outer portion of the brain (the cortex) was just a covering with no functional importance (the name “cortex” means “rind” or “bark”). Although Plato saw the brain as the site of sensation and thought, Aristotle thought the heart was the major center of rationality and that the brain only cooled “humours” of the blood. This “cardiocentric” view also prevailed throughout the Middle Ages. Aristotle also thought that the “spirit” circulated freely in the brain, via sensus communis, which later came to be known as common sense.

Systematic study of the relationships between brain and learning processes began in the 17th–18th centuries as the Renaissance opened a period of interest in the brain (Finger, 1994; Gross, 1998).

Using the microscope (an early technological advance), Malpighi studied the anatomy of the cortex, Willis suggested that the gyri (the bulging folds of the cerebral cortex) controlled memory and will, and Descartes identified the pineal gland, while still asserting that the brain and the mind were two different entities (Gross, 1998). By the 1800s various areas of the brain had been identified as being responsible for specific functions. For example, Legallois isolated the medulla as the respiratory center of the brain, Swedenborg identified separate motor and sensory cortical areas, Flourens reported that the cerebellum coordinated movement, Broca showed that motor control of language was in the frontal cortex, and Wernicke identified the temporal lobe as the site for interpretation of spoken language (Finger, 1994). Unfortunately, Gall’s promotion of phrenology, an incorrect view that asserted that skull shape and features were related to personality characteristics, gained prominence until it was attacked by Flourens, who asserted the brain acts as a whole to form intelligence.

In the late 1800s, with the assistance of electrophysiological recordings (another technological advance), Caton established the “Neuron Doctrine,” stating that neurons were independent units composed of cell bodies, axons, and dendrites; Schwann identified the myelin sheaths (fat-like deposits) on neurons; and Sherrington found the “spaces” between axon and dendrites (the synapses) and studied how messages were transmitted across the synapses (Finger, 1994, 2001; Gross, 1998). By the early 1900s the theory that all brain functions were specific to certain areas was challenged by equipotentiality theory, which suggested that all areas of the brain contribute equally to all behaviors (Lashley, 1950). Luria (1973), a Russian neuropsychologist, developed another competing idea of the brain as being composed of “functional systems,” which supported a view that multiple areas of the brain function together to produce behaviors. One of the first researchers who investigated the brain’s relation to learning was Franz (Finger, 1994, 2001), who studied the brain’s ability to learn or relearn after it had been damaged. His findings suggested that new pathways could be developed after brain injury, thus supporting the more integrated theories of brain functioning.

During the late 20th century, major technological advances enabled brain researchers to engage in much more precise study of the brain. The development of metabolic, electrophysiologic, magnetic, and neuropsychological methods for studying living brains has enabled researchers to learn much more about the relationships between brain structures and functions. The information discussed in this book is primarily derived from research using these newer procedures. They include metabolic procedures such as positron emission tomography (PET), single-photon emission computerized tomography (SPECT), and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI); electrophysiological procedures such as electroencephalogram (EEG) and event-related potentials (ERP); and magnetic procedures such as magnetic source imaging (MSI), magnetoencephalography (MEG), and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). Because the procedures are still being refined and extended, however, many of the implications of these findings for education are hypotheses only. The advantages and disadvantages of each of these procedures are shown in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Current Brain Research Techniques

Technique	Advantages	Disadvantages
PET/SPECT Positron emission tomography/Single-photon emission computerized tomography	—Non-invasive —Able to localize brain activity —Able to use on young children	—Ethical questions of use of radioactive materials on the young —Range of isolation of activity is centimeter range (not precise) —Brief time span before decay of signal —Expensive
fMRI Functional magnetic resonance imaging	—Non-invasive —No exposure to radiation —Precise, isolates areas in range of millimeters —Fast	—Participants must be very still —High level of noise may be painful —Cramped environment —Expensive
EEG Electroencephalogram	—Non-invasive —Sensitive to state changes —Relatively inexpensive	—Gives general information; not really suited to study of cognitive processes —Poor spatial and temporal resolution
ERP Event-related potentials	—Can examine cognitive activity —Each signal marked by specific event/stimulus so more accurate temporal information —More electrodes so more accurate spatial information —Many measures in brief time	—Errors occur if extraneous movement (muscles, eyes), resulting in loss of trial or cases
MSI/MEG Magnetic source imaging/magnetoencephalography	—Fast enough to track neural signals —Tracks neural pathways directly —Yields good spatial (in millimeters) and temporal (in milliseconds) data	—Only reads signals near brain surface —Extremely sensitive to outside magnetic fields (moving metal objects) —Expensive
DTI Diffusion tensor imaging	—Non-invasive —More sensitive to white-matter injury of the brain than other imaging techniques —Highly sensitive to tears in white matter or diffuse axonal injury (DAI) —Can be used along with neuropsychological testing to show evidence of cognitive decline. —Can help predict recovery times for concussion patients	—Similar to other MRI tests —Expensive —Highly sensitive to distortion based on movement by the patient —Images can be blurry due to its low spatial resolution
Neuropsychological Assessment	—Non-invasive —Tasks can be used in animal research to make inferences about human behavior —Can be used with children and across lifespan	—Most tools measure more than one behavior so difficult to isolate behaviors —Difficult to determine precise location of brain lesion or dysfunction

In the early 21st century, as methods for studying the brain have become even more sophisticated, there have been continuing advances in brain research and thus greater knowledge of how brains are able to (as Hippocrates observed) “think, see, hear, and distinguish the ugly from the beautiful, the bad from the good, the pleasant from the unpleasant.” However, although most brain structures have been defined in detail, there are many aspects of brain functions that are still not clearly understood and thus remain important areas of research. Many present-day studies are focused on understanding the precise ways that these functions occur within the various interacting brain structures. Other present-day researchers are focused on finding out more about how brain functions and structures are related to mental health conditions that are similar to those that were of concern to Hippocrates. Another focus of current study is on the course of brain development (prenatal through adulthood) and the interacting environmental conditions that may foster or hinder optimum development. This is an especially important aspect for educators and parents, and much has been learned about this interaction in recent years. The following sections describe what is presently known about brain functions and structures.

Brain Functions

The communication functions of the brain are carried out by the neurons, each of which is composed of a cell body, one axon (sending unit), and a number of dendrites (receiving units). Neurons are not attached to each other; rather there are gaps between the axon and dendrites of each neuron, which are called synapses. Each neuron communicates through electrical impulses sent through the axon and dendrites and through chemical agents (neurotransmitters) that “jump the gap” at the synaptic site. There are over 100 neurotransmitters that are activated by the correct “fit” with certain receptor sites. Each class of neurotransmitters appears to be involved with particular categories of activation, such as memory or emotional arousal (Friedman, Klivington, & Peterson, 2013; Lezak, 1995). The brain also contains blood vessels that nourish the neurons, thus enabling them to function. The brain tissues are extremely oxygen-dependent, thus they rely greatly on the oxygen transmitted through the blood vessel...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Contents
• Acknowledgments
• Introduction: Need for New Edition of Brain Research and Childhood Education
• 1 Understanding the Brain
• 2 Prenatal Brain Development as a Foundation for Learning
• 3 Brain Development and Learning in the Infant and Toddler Years
• 4 Brain Development and Learning in the Preschool Years
• 5 Brain Development and Learning in the Elementary Years
• 6 Brain Development and Learning in the Middle Childhood Years
• 7 Brain Development and Learning in the Adolescent Years
• 8 Evaluating Educational Practices from a Brain Research Perspective
• Glossary of Brain and Nervous System Terms
• Index