Table of Contents
About the book series
Editorial board
List of contributors
Foreword by Lourdes Maurice
Foreword by Thomas B. Irvine
Editors' preface
Part I. Environmental impacts of aviation
1. Noise emissions from commercial aircraft
Edmane Envia
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Sources of Aircraft Noise
1.2.1 Engine noise sources
1.2.1.1 Fan noise
1.2.1.2 Propeller noise
1.2.1.3 Core noise
1.2.1.4 Jet noise
1.2.2 Airframe noise sources
1.2.2.1 Trailing edge noise
1.2.2.2 Landing gear noise
1.2.2.3 Slat noise
1.2.2.4 Flap (side-edge) noise
1.2.2.5 Other noise sources
1.3 Aircraft Component Noise Levels (Example)
1.4 Summary
2. Aircraft emissions: gaseous and particulate
Changlie Wey and Chi-Ming Lee
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Gaseous Emissions
2.2.1 Carbon dioxide
2.2.2 Oxides of nitrogen
2.2.3 Carbon monoxide
2.2.4 Unburned hydrocarbons
2.2.5 Water vapor
2.2.6 Sulfur oxides
2.2.7 Methane and nitrous oxide
2.3 Particle Emissions
2.4 Alternative Fuels
2.5 Summary
3. Improvement of aeropropulsion fuel efficiency through engine design
Kenneth L. Suder and James D. Heidmann
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Early History of NASA Glenn Research Center Aeropropulsion Fuel Efficiency Efforts, 1943 To 1958
3.3 Introduction of Turbofan Engines and Improved Propulsive Efficiency
3.4 Energy Crisis of 1970s and NASA Aeronautics Response
3.5 NASA’s Role in Component Test Cases and Computational Fluid Dynamics Development
3.6 Current NASA Efforts at Reduced Fuel Consumption
3.6.1 Open-rotor propulsors
3.6.2 Ultra-high-bypass engine cycle research
3.6.3 Boundary-layer-ingesting engines
3.6.4 Engine core research
3.6.4.1 NASA ERA core compressor technology development efforts
3.6.4.2 NASA ERA core hot-section technology development efforts
3.7 Summary
Part II. Technologies to mitigate environmental impacts
4. Noise mitigation strategies
Dennis L. Huff
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Noise Reduction Methods
4.2.1 Engine components
4.2.1.1 Fan noise
4.2.1.2 Propeller noise
4.2.1.3 Core noise
4.2.1.4 Jet noise
4.2.2 Airframe components
4.2.2.1 Trailing edge noise
4.2.2.2 Landing gear noise
4.2.2.3 Slat noise
4.2.2.4 Flap (side-edge) noise
4.2.2.5 Other noise
4.3 Future Noise-Reduction Technologies
4.3.1 Engine noise reduction
4.3.1.1 Engine mid-term technologies
4.3.1.2 Engine long-term technologies
4.3.2 Airframe noise reduction
4.3.2.1 Airframe mid-term technologies
4.3.2.2 Airframe long-term technologies
4.3.3 Aircraft noise-reduction goals
4.3.3.1 Mid-term goals
4.3.3.2 Long-term goals
4.4 Summary
5. Advanced materials for green aviation
Ajay Misra
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Lightweight Materials
5.2.1 Polymer matrix composites
5.2.2 Carbon nanotubes for structural applications
5.2.3 Multifunctional materials
5.2.4 Cellular materials for sandwich structures
5.3 Smart Materials
5.3.1 Shape memory alloys
5.3.2 Piezoelectric materials
5.4 High-Temperature Materials
5.4.1 High-temperature Ni-base superalloys
5.4.2 Ceramic matrix composites
5.4.3 Environmental degradation challenges with increase in turbine operating temperatures
5.5 Materials for Electric Aircraft
5.5.1 Advanced magnetic materials
5.5.2 Materials with high electrical conductivity
5.5.3 Advanced insulation materials
5.5.4 Advanced capacitors for power electronics
5.6 Summary
6. Clean combustion and emission control
Changlie Wey and Chi-Ming Lee
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Products of Combustion
6.2.1 Fundamentals of NOxformation
6.2.2 NOx emissions standards
6.3 Emissions Control
6.4 Engine NOx Control Strategies
6.4.1 Rich-burn, quick-quench, lean-burn combustion
6.4.2 Lean-burn, premixed, prevaporized combustors
6.4.3 Lean-burn staged combustors
6.4.3.1 Rolls-Royce lean-burn combustor
6.4.3.2 GE Aviation’s dual-annular combustor
6.4.3.3 GE Aviation’s twin-annular premixed system combustor
6.4.4 N+2 advanced low-NOx combustors
6.4.4.1 GE Aviation technology
6.4.4.2 Pratt & Whitney
6.5 Tradeoffs Involved IN Reducing NOX Emissions
6.6 Summary
7. Airspace Systems Technologies
Banavar Sridhar
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Current Airspace Operations
7.2.1 Separation Assurance
7.2.2 Traffic Flow Management
7.2.2.1 National Traffic Flow Management
7.2.2.2 Regional Traffic Flow Management
7.2.3 Terminal Area Operations
7.2.4 Surface Traffic Operations
7.2.5 Environmental Operations
7.3 Advanced Airspace Operations Concepts
7.3.1 Separation Assurance
7.3.2 Traffic Flow Management
7.3.3 Terminal Area
7.3.4 Surface Operations
7.3.5 Environmentally Friendly Operations
7.4 Next Generation Air Transportation System Technologies
7.4.1 Automatic Dependent Surveillance—Broadcast
7.4.2 Performance-Based Navigation
7.4.3 Weather Integration
7.4.4 Data Communication
7.4.5 Operations
7.4.5.1 Optimal Descent Trajectories
7.4.5.2 Wind-Optimal And User-Preferred Routes
7.4.5.3 Surface
7.4.6 Integrated technologies
7.4.7 Global harmonization
7.5 Conclusions
8. Alternative fuels and green aviation
Emily S. Nelson
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Aviation Fuel Requirements
8.2.1 Jet fuel specifications
8.2.2 Alternative jet fuel specifications
8.3 Fuel Properties
8.3.1 Effect of composition on fuel properties
8.3.2 Emissions
8.4 Biofuel Feedstocks for Aviation Fuels
8.4.1 Crop production for oil from seeds
8.4.2 Crop production for oil from algae
8.5 Manufacturing Stages
8.5.1 Dewatering, crude oil extraction, and preprocessing
8.5.2 Biorefining processes
8.5.2.1 Transesterification
8.5.2.2 Hydroprocessing
8.5.2.3 Other strategies
8.5.3 Coproducts
8.6 Life Cycle Assessment
8.7 Conclusions
9. Overview of alternative fuel drivers, technology options, and demand fulfillment
Kirsten Van Fossen, Kristin C. Lewis, Robert Malina, Hakan Olcay and James I. Hileman
9.1 Introduction
9.1 Alternative Fuel Drivers
9.2.1 Environment and human health
9.2.2 Economy
9.2.3 Energy security
9.3 Technology Options
9.4 Meeting Demand for Alternative Jet Fuel
9.5 Conclusions
10. Biofuel feedstocks and supply chains: how ecological models can assist with design and scaleup
Kristin C. Lewis, Dan F.B. Flynn and Jeffrey J. Steiner
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Challenges of Developing an Agriculturally Based Advanced Biofuel Industry
10.3 Potential Benefits of Scaled-Up Biofuel Feedstock Production
10.4 Regionalized Biomass Production and Linkage to Conversion Technology
10.5 Applying Ecological Models to Biofuel Production
10.5.1 Description of on ecological model for biofuel production
10.5.2 Scenarios to test biofuel production
10.6 Summary
11. Microalgae feedstocks for aviation fuels
Mark S. Wigmosta, Andre M. Coleman, Erik R. Venteris and Richard L. Skaggs
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Algae Growth Characteristics
11.2.1 Biophysics
11.2.2 Climate variability
11.2.3 Productivity
11.3 Large-Scale Production Potential and Resource Constraints
11.3.1 Land
11.3.2 Water
11.3.3 Nutrients
11.4 Two-Billion Gallon Per Year Case Study
11.4.1 Results
11.4.2 Discussion and conclusions
11.5 Summary and Conclusions
12. Certification of alternative fuels
Emily S. Nelson and Dhanireddy R. Reddy
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Background
12.2.1 Aviation fuel specifications
12.2.2 Foundational elements of the approval process
12.3 ASTM Certification Process
12.3.1 Basis of the approval process
12.3.2 Guidebook for the approval process (ASTM D4054)
12.3.2 Drop-in fuel specification (ASTM D7566)
12.3.4 Fischer-Tropsch-synthesizedparaffinic kerosene, 2006 to 2009
12.3.5 Hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids
12.3.6 Synthesized isoparaffin
12.4 U.S. Federal Aviation Administration Certification
12.5 Future Pathways
13. Environmental performance of alternative jet fuels
Hakan Olcay, Robert Malina, Kristin Lewis, Jennifer Papazian, Kirsten van Fossen, Warren Gillette, Mark Staples, Steven R.H. Barrett, Russell W. Stratton and James I. Hileman
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Evaluating Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Impacts of Alternative Fuels on Global Climate Change
13.2.1 Greenhouse gas life cycle analysis background
13.2.2 Overview of greenhouse gas life cycle analysis results for drop-in jet fuels
13.2.2.1 Conventional jet fuel from crude oil
13.2.2.2 Fischer-Tropsch jet fuel
13.2.2.3 Hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids jet fuel
13.2.2.4 Renewable jet fuel from sugars
13.2.3 Land-use change
13.2.4 Discussion of greenhouse gas life-cycle analysis results
13.2.5 Addition of non-CO2 combustion emissions
13.3 Water
13.3.1 Water use and consumption
13.3.2 Water quality
13.4 Biodiversity
13.5 Conclusions
14. Perspectives on the future of green aviation
Jay E. Dryer
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Key Factors Affecting the Future of Green Aviation
14.2.1 Technology trends
14.2.2 Economic trends
14.2.3 Policy and regulatory trends
14.2.4 Social trends
14.3 Required Technology for Aircraft Development and Design
14.4 Required Technology for Greater Alternative Fuel Utilization
14.5 Possible Disruptive Technologies
14.6 Forecast
14.6.1 The steady-state case (or business as usual)
14.6.2 The pessimistic case
14.6.3 The optimistic case
14.7 Summary
Acronym list
Subject index
Book series page
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