The Devil and the Vice in the English Dramatic Literature Before Shakespeare

L. W. Cushman

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2019
• ISBN:
  9780429632488
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Literature
• Subtopic: Literary Criticism
• Index: Literature

Originally published in 1900, this book was the first investigation of the devil and the Vice as dramatic figures, and a study of these figures led to a new view of the subject: it is, in brief, that the appearance of the devil in the non-dramatic as well as in the dramatic literature is limited to a definite range. As a dramatic figure the devil falls more and more into the background and the Vice is distinct in origin and function from the devil.

Part I. The Devil.

I. Introductory. The devil in the earlier, chiefly non-dramatic literature.

The devil as a dramatic figure presupposes a personal character having certain corporal attributes and having certain things to do; under the corporal attributes may be understood the outward appearance and name of the figure, under things to do, his actions and words. Appearance, action and words constitute the dramatic persona proper, consequently, references to the abstract principles of evil or to the dualism in nature, morals or religion, likewise, the mere mention of the devil as the agent of evil, but where he is not thought of as bodily present, are not taken into consideration; this study is concerned primarily with the representations of the devil as a figure on the stage.

The representations of the devil on the stage, it is reasonable to suppose, are largely traditional, hence the earlier nondramatic literature may be regarded as the source of many details of the figure of the devil; from this great source the writers of the old plays probably derived many characteristic traits of the devil’s figure, although, in this case, the possibility is by no means excluded, that the dramatic literature and the theological are but two quite independent streams flowing from a common source. That the Mystery-cycles, however, were not uninfluenced, especially by the Cursor Mundi, has been pointed out by Professor ten Brink. An examination, at the outset of this investigation, of the earlier non-dramatic English literature, and a collection of some typical examples will help, therefore, to determine, in a measure, what the prevailing notions in the Middle Ages concerning the figure in question were.

Sources. — The non-dramatic literature, in which the devil is especially to be found, is almost entirely theological: Homilies, Legends of the Saints, biblical Histories and didactic treatises. In the matter of introducing the figures of devils, the writers in the Middle Ages were not as free as is sometimes believed. In the Legends, as elsewhere, tradition plays an important part, thus checking a tendency, inherent in the very nature of these stories, to become with time more and more extravagant. As a rule, the appearance of the devil is confined to certain Legends; in many, the figure is wanting in all the versions.

In the Homilies, Histories and didactic tracts the observation is here to be recorded; first, that devils appear with remarkable regularity only in certain great scenes: the Fall of Lucifer, the Fall of Adam and Eve, the Temptation of Christ, the Harrowing of Hell and Doomsday, second, that they do not appear, except in rare instances, in certain other great scenes: The Murder of Abel, the Flood, in the story of Pharaoh, of Herod and the like. Furthermore, in the stories of the childhood and education of the Virgin Mary and of the childhood of Jesus, the devil plays no conspicuous part. Thus it is evident that the devil is a traditional figure, and that the ultimate source of this tradition is the Bible, including the Apocrypha, as understood and interpreted by the early Church Fathers. This observation holds good also, as will be seen later, in the Mysteries. In the mediaeval religious literature, the dramatic as well as the non-dramatic, with the exception of the Legends and of the later Miracles (see below), the occurrence of the figure of the devil is confined to biblical precedents.

The treatment of the devil in the abstract. — It is customary, particulary in didactic literature, to refer to the devil in a general way, as the source or principle of evil. Expressions of general reference are exemplified in phrases, such as: „deofles wise“, Blickling Hom., p. 55, „fram deofles an-weald“, Aelfric, I, 120, „þurhh deofell“, Orrm, 11416, etc. etc. Physical evil, especially if mysterious, is also ascribable to the devil; thus Richard Rolle of Hampole explains in Be Natura Apis how honey in the hives breeds worms: „þe deuile turnes it to wormes“, 25.

In Beowulf the identification of physical evil with a spirit, like Grendel, as well as the propitiation of the „gast bona“, 177, and the assigning of Grendel finally to the company of fiends: „deofla ʓedræg“, 757, „on feonda ʓeweald“, 809, were undoubtedly in the heathen original; the explanation, that the worship of the „gast bona“ is devil-worship, and that evil spirits and monsters are the oifspring of Cain, is due to the clerical revisers of the poem. Grendel is especially designated as „feond on helle“, 101, as „ellor gast“, 808, as „goddes ansaca“, 1683, and as a descendant of Cain:

… „þanon onwoc fela

ʓeosceaft gasta: wæs þæra Grendel sum“, 1267.

This is an interesting instance of an early contact of heathen and Christian demonology.

A satirical use is made of the devil’s name by Aelfric in his sermon on the Assumptio See. Mariae Virginis; idle words, anger, songs, stories, and the like, are called the „devil’s seed“, II, 163. In his sermon on the Prophet Jeremiah still stronger expressions are used: „þe ʓeolewe claþ is þe deofles helfter“ (halter), foolish women are called the „devil’s mouse-trap“ and „blanchet“ (white powder) is the „devil’s soap“, I, 53.

Abstractions, however, may be personified, and of personifications dramatic characters may be made. The World, the Flesh and the Devil, and the Seven Deadly Sins are often treated in the old clerical writings. The World, the Flesh and the Devil are called our three foes: cf. þe wohunge of ure Lauerd, p. 277, the Old English Homily, Induite vos armatura die, I, 243, Cursor Mundi 10104, 23746, 25730, etc. etc. The Seven Deadly Sins are referred, in their origin, to the seven spirits which were cast out of Mary Magdalene: „þe seven full gostes þat ich nu embe was, waren þe difles giltes, þat ure drihten drof ut of seint Marie Magdaleine“, Old English Homily, In media quadrogessima, II, 87. A common classification of these powers is the following, as given by Wyclif: „Pride, envy and wrath ben synnes of þo fende; wrath, slauth and avarice ben synnes of þo world, avarice and glottenye and þo synne of lechorye ben synnes of þo flesche“, Works, III, 119. cf. Chaucer, The Tale of Melibeus, 2610 „the three enemies of mankind, that is to seyn the flessh, the feend and the world“. The personification is complete in Langland’s Vision of the Seven Deadly Sins; they are all masculine, excepting Pride, and each is described by some characteristic trait. In this particular instance, they are much affected by the sermon of Reason and repent their sins: Superbia will don a hair shirt, Luxuria will „drink but with the duck“, Invidia confesses to „backbiting“, Ira, that he has incited many to quarrel; Avaritia thought that „rifling were restitution“, not understanding French, Gula promises „to fast“ and to eat no fish on Friday without leave of his aomt Abstinence, whom he has hitherto cordially hated, Accidia is a priest who „can rhymes of Robin Hood“ but not of our Lord or Lady.

Personifications like these, together with the real personal devil, figure prominently in the Moralities, but in the Mysteries no bad powers are personified, excepting Mors. The Coventry Plays have a number of figures of good powers like Pax, Contemplacio, etc., Chester has Thrones, Virtutes etc., Townley, Trinitas.

The treatment of the devil concretely. — The biblical Histories and the narrative portions in the Homilies, being more or less of an epic character, approach much nearer to the dramatic. The devil is treated here, as also in the Legends, as a real person in active relations to other persons and is thus made capable of furnishing motifs for dramatic action.

The Fall of Lucifer is always thought of realistically; the change in the appearance and name of the fallen angel is especially definite. This scene, with attendant circumstances, is fully described in the Cursor Mundi; Lucifer is represented speaking, he declares his intention to place his throne on the north side of heaven over against the seat of Most High; God shall have no more service from him. It is then related that Michael arose and fought against Lucifer and cast him out of heaven:

„þis is þe feind þat formast fell,

þoru his ouergart (pride) in to hell,

Fra þan his nam changed was

For now es he cald Sathanas“. 477—480.

(The Göttingen Ms. has „foule Sathanas“, the Trinity, „From Lucifer to Sathanas“). The Genesis and Exodus likewise relates that Ligber, i. e. Lightbearer, took his flight and set his seat on the north side of heaven between heaven and hell and became, in consequence, a black drake:

„ðo wurð he drake ðat ear was knigt,

ð wurð he mire ðat ear was ligt“. 283—4.

The blackness of the devil is often referred to: „þe blake deofol“, Soules Wearde, 251, „swarttore þene euere ani blowʓman“. Early South English Legends, I, 245/165; likewise, his loathsomness: „þe laþe Sathanas and Belzebub þe elde“, Poema Morale, 285, „þe loþe gast“, Orrm, 11355.

In the Temptation of our first parents the form of the devil, here generally Satan, is already determined by the biblical account, namely, that of the serpent. Satan, seeing Adam in bliss is filled with envy because man has been created to take the place in heaven that he himself has lost. In the Genesis and Exodus it is thus tersely related that Satan „wente into a wirme and told Eve a tale“, 321. The serpent here is not the devil himself but an assumed form; thus according to Cursor Mundi:

„þat wili warlau him heild on drei

And ganid noʓt cum him to nei,

Nameli in his auen schap …

for-þi a messager he send …

To þis he ches a littel best,

þe quilk es noʓt vnwiliest,

þe nedder þat es of a scaft,

þat mast can bath on crok and craft …

þis nedder forth þat he ne blan

Bot in hijs slught (skin) was self Satan“, 731—745.

The Temptation of Christ is in all accounts told with utmost fidelity to the biblical story. The only liberties the writers allow themselves being the use of certain epithets; Aelfric designates the tempter as bloodthirsty (wælræw), I, 192, the Cursor Mundi, as „þe warlau wili“, 12930; The outward appearance of Satan in this scene is not described.

The story of Job afforded, ready at hand, a good devil-scene, but this plot seems not to have attracted much attention. Aelfric, however, gives a full account of the story in almost the exact words of the Bible. He designates the devil as „manfulla“ and as the „ealda“, who goes from the presence of God and destroyes in one day all of Job’s possessions, II, 450.

Judas. — The devil is spoken of as actually entering Judas, as is recorded in the New Testament ; thus in Aelfric: „Huæt se deofol into Judan bestap“, II, 242. According to the Cursor Mundi the Savior gave Judas a morsel of bread and with that morsel „crep in him Sathanas“, 15388, and after Judas had hanged himself, the fiend hurled him into hell, 16528. The carrying off of the souls of evil doers to hell, as in the case of Judas, is a function of the devil especially developed in the Mysteries and in some of the Legends.

With other persons, as has already been intimated, the devil has but little to do. Cain was according to the scribes of the Beowulf, the ancestor of the evil monsters, according to the Cursor Mundi he was the „devil’s food“, but, strange to relate, the temptation of Cain to kill his brother was without the special instigation of the devil, 1056. Pharaoh appears to be regarded by Aelfric as an incarnate devil: „Pharao getacnode þone oywan deofol“, II, 200.

The Doomsday does not possess the interest that the other great devil-scenes do, it is not so often described and, on the whole, lacks in definiteness. The devils take no very active part. The accusers of the guilty ones on that great day shall be God, our conscience, the world and the devil, Cursor Mundi, 26711; but accusers are hardly necessary, as the wicked, especially suicides, shall rise with a maimed body, while the ri...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Original Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Preface
• Table of Contents
• Part I. The Devil.
• Part II. The Tice.
• Bibliography