Robotics and Mechatronics for Agriculture

Dan Zhang, Bin Wei, Dan Zhang, Bin Wei

• Publisher: CRC Press
• Year: 2017
• ISBN:
  9781351788601
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Biological Sciences
• Subtopic: Botany
• Index: Biological Sciences

The aim of the book is to introduce the state-of-the-art technologies in the field of robotics, mechatronics and automation in agriculture in order to summarize and review the improvements in the methodologies in agricultural robotics.

Advances made in the past decades are described, including robotics for agriculture, mechatronics for agriculture, kinematics, dynamics and control analysis of agricultural robotics, and a wide range of topics in the field of robotics, mechatronics and automation for agricultural applications.

1

Process Optimization of Composting Systems

Naoto Shimizu

1. INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS OPTIMIZATION OF COMPOSTING SYSTEMS

Food supply is a primary issue for people around the world. Increasing demand for food has been anticipated by the increased intake of meat, fat, processed foods, sugar and salt nutrition transition. The livestock (cattle, swine, chicken) sector is a substantial source of nutrients for human consumption. In Japan, total production of animal waste in 2015 was 83 million tons. There is a need to develop management systems that use cattle manure effectively and without causing adverse environmental effect.

Problems associated with waste from animal husbandry are, safety, financial and environmental. Huge amounts of solid wastes from animal husbandry result in odor problems that can lead to complaints from neighbors and other people. Composting is a simple and energy efficient way to solve this problem. The purposes of composting are:

• Elimination of pathogens and weeds

• Microbial stabilization

• Reduction of volume and moisture

• Removal and control of odors

• Ease of storage, transport and use

Many studies have addressed the basic requirements for composting (Kimura and Shimizu, 1981a,b; Bach et al., 1987; Wu et al., 1990). Composting system technology is required to support production in agricultural ecosystems. However, the main problem is the practical application of these technologies. We begin with an introduction to the composting process (2) and sensor fro systems operation (3), then define with function and mechanism of aeration (4), the results is indicated the results of bin composting (5) and is discussed with the early stage composting by packed bed-type reactor (6) and adiabatic-type reactor (7). Because composting systems are not uniform in degradation and material temperature, information on the degradation of materials within forced aeration composting is very useful for practical operation.

2. THE COMPOSTING PROCESS

Composting is the aerobic (oxygen-requiring) decomposition of organic materials by microorganisms under controlled conditions. During composting, microorganisms consume oxygen (O₂) while feeding on organic matter. Active composting generates considerable heat, large quantities of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and release water vapor into the air. CO₂ and water (vapor) losses can amount to half the weight of the initial waste materials (Fig. 1). Thus, composting reduces both the volume and mass of the raw materials while transforming them into valuable soil conditioner. Factors affecting the composting process are oxygen, aeration, nutrients (carbon:nitrogen (C:N) ratio), moisture content, porosity, structure, texture, particle size, pH and temperature (Table 1).

Fig. 1. Principles of the composting process. The carbon, chemical energy, organic matter and water in finished compost is less than that in the raw materials. The volume of the finished compost is 50% or less than that of the raw material.

Table 1. Recommended conditions for rapid composting.

Condition	Reasonable range*	Preferred range
Carbon to nitrogen (C:N) ratio	20:1–40:1	25:1–30:1
Moisture content	40–60%**	50–60%
Oxygen concentration	Greater than 5%	Much greater than 5%
Particle size (diameter in meters)	3.2 × 10^−3−1.3 × 10^−2	Varies**
pH	5.5–9.0	6.5–8.0
Temperature	43–66	54–60

* These recommendations are for rapid composting. Conditions outside these ranges can also yield successful results.

** Depends on the specific materials, particle size, and/or weather conditions.

2.1 Temperature and the Physical Properties of Compost Material

Fig. 2. Thermophilic composting process by aerobic degradation.

Temperature increase within composting materials is a result of heat balance during composting (Kimura and Shimizu, 2002, Fig. 2a). Temperature is one of the most important variables in the composting process (Schulze, 1962). Composting at temperatures below 20°C has been demonstrated to significantly slow and even stop the composting process. Therefore, temperature can be an indicator of activity in the biological process of composting. In the aerobic decomposition of biomass, the desired products are water, CO₂ and heat byproducts of composting. Mesophilic organisms which function best within the range of 24 to 40°C, initiate the composting process (Fig. 2b). As microbial activity increases soon after the formation of a composting pile, temperatures within piles of sufficient volume and density also increase. Thermophilic microorganisms take over at temperatures above 40°C. The temperature in the compost matrix typically increases rapidly to 54 to 65°C within 24 to 74 h in an adiabatic-type reactor at the laboratory scale (Kimura and Shimizu, 1981a). In thermophilic composting, any soluble sugars in the original mixture are almost immediately used up by bacteria and other microorganisms. Other components such as protein, fat, and cellulose get broken down by heat-tolerant microbes. Nitrogen is readily available when it is in the proteinaceous, peptide, or amino acid forms. Lignins (large polymers that cement cellulose fibers together in wood) are among the slowest compounds to decompose because of their complex structure that is highly resistant to enzyme attack.

Porosity, structure and texture relate to the physical properties of a material such as particle size, shape, and consistency, affect the composting process by their influence on aeration. They can be modified by the selection of raw materials and grinding or mixing. Materials added to adjust these properties are referred to as amendments or bulking agents. For composting applications, an acceptable porosity and structure can be achieved in most of the raw materials, if the moisture content is less than 65% (w/v). However, some situations profit from special attention to porosity, structure, or texture. Composting piles are susceptible to settling, so large par...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• Preface
• 1. Process Optimization of Composting Systems
• 2. Overview of Mechatronic Design for a Weed-Management Robotic System
• 3. Robotics for Spatially and Temporally Unstructured Agricultural Environments
• 4. Current and Future Applications of Cost-Effective Smart Cameras in Agriculture
• 5. From Manual Farming to Automatic and Robotic Based Farming—An Introduction
• 6. Cooperative Robotic Systems in Agriculture
• 7. Adaptive Min-max Model Predictive Control for Field Vehicle Guidance in the Presence of Wheel Slip
• 8. Model Reference Adaptive Control for Uncertain Dynamical Systems with Unmatched Disturbances: A Command Governor-Based Approach
• Index