Environment, Planning and Land Use

Philip Kivell,Peter Roberts,Gordon P. Walker

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2018
• ISBN:
  9780429855825
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Physical Sciences
• Subtopic: Geography
• Index: Geography

Published in 1998, this work focuses on the practical issues and policies relating to planning and managing both built and natural environments. It addresses the needs to pursue a greater degree of integration between the subject matter and the international frameworks of environmental planning.

1 Introduction: environment, planning and land use

Philip Kivell, Peter Roberts and Gordon Walker

An overview

Whilst the theme of sustainable development has provided a semblance of unity to the debate on how best to design and implement policies that allow for reconciliation between the economic and environmental objectives of society, in reality, one has only to scratch the surface of this seeming unity in order to discover a multitude of different perspectives and methods of interpretation. However, despite the rich diversity which is evident in the detailed analyses presented in this volume, it is possible to detect a common sense of purpose in many of the contributions. This common sense of purpose is distinguished by the acknowledgement of the important role played by spatial considerations in the analysis of issues and the generation of policy.

Moving beyond the broad rhetoric of sustainable development, a major challenge confronting both academics and practitioners is how best to analyse, design and implement solutions to the environmental, economic, social and political problems that are encountered throughout the regions and nations of Europe. These are problems that are common to both east and west, and learning from individual responses to such problems can help assist in the creation of a pool of knowledge and expertise that will continue to be of considerable assistance in generating a collective response.

This search for explanations and solutions, together with the value which is attached to the exchange of experience, helps to define the primary purpose of this book. It is remarkable how frequently the same or similar problems occur almost irrespective of particular environmental characteristics or political regimes. This coincidence in the occurrence and manifestation of problems allows for the definition and testing of alternative solutions. Whilst it is reasonable to argue that a particular array of problems which is evident at an individual place may be considered to be a unique event, it is equally reasonable to suggest that lessons that are of value in one place should be identified and transferred elsewhere. Learning by doing is important, but costly mistakes can be avoided through the replication of a proven approach. This is not to suggest that blind duplication is the method of diagnosis or prognosis advocated herein, nor is it intended that the dissemination of good practice should deteriorate into a mindless attempt to ape practice elsewhere and thereby create sterile uniformity. Rather, the purpose of this book is to demonstrate the range and the appropriateness of the explanations and solutions on offer, and to suggest that many of these offerings may prove to be valuable as models for the planning and management of the environment.

The contributions to this volume were originally presented as papers at a conference organised by the Planning and Environment Research Group of the Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers) held at Keele University in April 1996. The scope and broad structure of the contributions presented at the conference were defined with the requirements of this book in mind and specific emphasis was placed on six themes. These themes provide coherence and provide a common organising framework for the chapters contained in the present volume. In addition, these themes reflect the breadth of the content of the current discourse on the nature of sustainable development as applied to spatial planning, environmental management and the use and regulation of a range of resources including land.

The first theme has already been mentioned and is a distinguishing feature of the majority of the contributions to the present book. This spatial perspective on planning, environment and land use adds an often ignored fourth dimension to the normal triad of structural, functional and temporal concerns. By adding this fourth dimension, the intention is to provide a total view of the entire environment and planning field of inquiry, rather than duplicating other treatments of the subject, most of which have generally restricted themselves to a single issue or, at best, a three-dimensional view. Most of the chapters incorporate a spatial perspective, and the various explorations of this theme provide evidence of the value of such an approach. We see, for example, the results and consequences of managing water resources through the adoption of an organizational structure that is not entirely coincident in either space or the cycle of programme revision with the land-use planning system. By way of contrast, other examples demonstrate the value of adopting a total approach to the quartet of spatial, structural, functional and temporal concerns in the search for new explanations of socio-political organization or, at a more mundane level, the creation of regional and local frameworks for the implementation of Local Agenda 21.

A second theme that is explored in this book is the considerable influence exerted by socio-political structures over matters of environment and land-use. Society gets the environmental quality that it deserves, or that it is willing to pay for, and this factor frequently governs the ability of planning and environmental management systems to get to grips with what are often deep-rooted, extensive and expensive-to-solve problems. The processes of political and economic choice which govern policy, together with the strength of the resulting legislation, mirror society's attitude towards the environment. In east or west - it appears to make little difference in which sphere of Europe a country is located - a general approach to public policy which favours economic exploitation can overwhelm the environment and thereby render individual efforts at improvement futile. Social learning, to borrow Hajer's phrase (Hajer, 1996), is a pre-requisite for the establishment of a lasting change in attitude, and this change in attitude should exert influence on all sectors and forms of activity.

But how will we know when a lasting change of approach has been successful in bringing about an enhanced environment? The answer to this question provides the substance of the third theme: how to measure and assess actual or proposed changes to the condition of the environment and to the other elements of sustainable development. A number of the contributions explore this theme and provide convincing evidence to support the oft-quoted maxim: if you can't measure it, you can't manage it.

The fourth strand of inquiry, which is evident in a number of the chapters, is the desirability of encouraging the adoption of planning and environmental management systems which encapsulate both a top-down and a bottom-up perspective. People live in places not sectors of activity, and most people reserve their strongest protests for situations when undesirable projects are proposed in their back yard. The culture of the NIMBY is a manifestation of the protective instinct of a society facing a difficult process of choice. This process of choice, if managed with care and sensitivity, can help to empower citizens and allow them to gain greater control over planning for their own immediate environment. This is a message which is equally relevant in Greece and Greater London, and it also yields lessons that are applicable in other policy fields.

A fifth area of exploration which is incorporated in a number of the chapters in this book, relates to the importance of developing methods of analysis and policy systems that are based upon a comprehensive view of all the key elements of planning, environment and land use. Equally important is the need to apply methods of treatment that consider the full range of issues, and which allow for interconnections to be established between different types of administration and between different elements of the socio-economic-environmental system in question.

The final theme discussed in this book reflects the value of transnational and transcultural studies. As is demonstrated by case studies set in both eastern and western Europe, there are many common environmental problems and few of the impacts of these problems are confined to a specific country of origin. The most obvious examples of transfrontier effects relate to the various sources of pollution, and the transmission of the consequences of pollution to adjacent nations. Whilst this is the most visible and, perhaps, the best known example of the transfrontier nature of environmental problems, other less easily detected and more difficult to trace events also occur. For example, western nations have often regarded east-central Europe as a convenient and cheap dumping ground for industrial and domestic waste that cannot be easily or legally disposed of in the west. Equally importantly, the west currently encourages the production of goods in the less harshly regulated economies of the former Soviet bloc. Today, new environmental transnational challenges have emerged as a consequence of economic development and the opening up of central-east Europe to market forces.

These six themes provide a general platform for the contributions made by the following chapters to the analysis of planning, environment and land use issues in a variety of different regions and localities throughout Europe. The scale of concern varies between the chapters: from the micro-level discussion of land use and urban form in a Greek village, to continental-scale assessments of progress with the spatial and environmental policies of the European Union. Equally, the focus of concern differs according to the emphasis placed upon a particular aspect of the subject. Some chapters offer a specific focus on water, on pollution, on derelict land, on urban form or on infrastructure, for example, whilst others take a broader cross-cutting view and emphasise topics such as spatial integration, methods of environmental assessment or the implementation of policy. Whatever the emphasis, the contributions are all marked by a common concern with the desire to apply academic expertise and knowledge to the enhancement of environmental quality.

The structure and organization of this book

The present text is organised in three parts. Whilst each of these parts represents a discrete area of expertise and activity, there is also a high degree of interconnectivity between the parts, with a natural progression from the background theory and context in the first part, through a more detailed discussion of a variety of specific themes and issues, to the development of policy and management agendas in the third part. This progression is deliberate, and it was designed in order to demonstrate both the value of sound analysis that is rooted in detailed research, and the need to encourage the clear assessment of what can be achieved.

Michael Chapman provides the opening contribution, which offers an analysis and assessment of the origins, development and the growing importance of European spatial perspective for the future evolution of planning, environment and land use. Chapman's focus of attention is on the urban scene, and it is at this level that the failings of many previous policy efforts can be observed. In this contribution particular emphasis is placed on the evolution and competence of European Union policy and the problems experienced in attempting to implement this and other associated policies..

The theme of European policy is extended in the second chapter of the first part. Peter Roberts explores the origins and consequences of some of the major environmental problems experienced in both eastern and western Europe. It is argued that the fundamental cause of many of these environmental problems is the dislocation which can be observed between the economic and environmental agendas evident in previous eras of development. The case for a paradigm shift, away from the tonnage ideology of the past and towards the adoption of a development model based on ecological modernization principles, is presented in this chapter. This proposal is illustrated by reference to a number of experiments in the ecological modernization of local and regional economies.

The focus on socio-political issues as a counterbalance to the dominance of environmental and economic concerns, is extended in the following chapter. József Tóth and Pál Golobics trace the origins of the spatial and environmental problems of many of the broader regions of central and eastern Europe, and they argue that geopolitical considerations can be seen to work against the achievement of either environmental progress or economic efficiency.

Tim Marshall's contribution in Chapter five takes a somewhat different tack, albeit related to the first three chapters in terms of its basic philosophy. His chapter examines how the water and energy sectors are being affected within two regional contexts, Catalonia and the English West Midlands, and considers the difficulties generated by the simultaneous emergence of new environmental objectives and drastic sectoral economic change. Attention is also given to the provision of regulation and especially the spatial dimension of regulation through some form of regional planning.

The second part of the book presents a number of specific themes mid issues. Diversity of problem and variety of response can be observed in the contributions made to this part.

Nigel Watson provides the first contribution, his selected topic is the integration of land and water management in England. Even though the integrated management of land and water has been identified as a fundamental principle for sustainable development, current practice fails to achieve the required level of integration. A case study is presented of nitrate pollution and of the management response to the call for closer integration.

In contrast to the difficulties encountered in England with regard to the integration of land and water management, the Dutch experience demonstrates the benefits that can be derived from greater co-ordination and integration. In his study of Dutch spatial planning and water management, Maruis Schwartz outlines the evolution of efforts aimed at the closer integration of the two planning systems, discusses the difficulties encountered in achieving coherence and evaluates the costs and benefits associated with such an approach.

Gordon Walker, Mark Barlow and Derek Pratts offer a different perspective on the relationship between land and environment. In Chapter eight they examine and evaluate the role of central government and local authorities, and of land use planning in particular, in the management and control of environmental risk. Two case studies are utilised in this chapter, of major industrial accident hazards and of contaminated land risks, in order to illustrate the issues that the planning system is asked to handle and to demonstrate the limits of the capacity of this mode of regulation.

The problems and potentials of derelict land provide further evidence of the management capacities of the public policy system, this time in relation to market conditions and to the community benefits that may emerge on some derelict sites. In their study of derelict sites in North Staffordshire, Philip Kivell and Sarah Hatfield report on survey findings from a series of sites and conclude that such sites can offer both wildlife habitats and a valuable community resource.

In another region of Europe and in relation to a different facet of community life, Evangelos Dimitriadis, Christos Kousidonis and Alexandros-Phaedon Lagoupulos consider the difficulties involved in adapting the spatial form of villages in order better to meet the requirements of sustainable development. This chapter provides an insight into the challenge of micro-scale urban restructuring in order to meet both social and aesthetic requirements, whilst also enhancing economic opportunity. An additional element that is emphasised in the chapter is the importance of securing community participation in the restructuring process.

The final chapter in the second part illustrates the social and economic impediments to the achievement of sustainable development in Hungary. Istvan Fodor's contribution discusses the importance of ensuring the simultaneous progress of economic and environmental agendas. However, as the chapter illustrates, such a coincidence will not occur without intervention, and the Hungarian model is offered as an example of an attempt to manage the processes of change.

In the final part of this book the emphasis switches to questions of policy and management. Four chapters present various aspects of this topic, and they all illustrate the very real difficulties involved in attempting to translate the objectives of policy into solid achievement.

Fergus Anckorn and Nick Coppin examine the role of environmental assessment in the integration of environment and development. Their contribution outlines the origins and operation of environmental assessment, and also illustrate some of the difficulties encountered in applying this method of assessment to mining projects. An important conclusion from this analysis is the desirability of applying environmental assessment to mining policy and plans, rather than leaving matters to the consideration of individual project applications.

A wider view of environmental quality and control is presented by Michael Clark in his examination of quality assurance for planning and environmental management. All too often public objectives are not achieved through either the land use planning system or other public policy instruments. In the case of transportation the results of failure are evident in poor service provision and the environmental consequences of a poorly integrated provision.

Progress with Local Agenda 21 provides the core of the contribution made by Bob Evans. His assessment of the ways in which selected local authorities have responded to the call to complete their Local Agendas, demonstrates the different institutional representations and understandings of the notion of sustainable development. Despite considerable variations in the rate of progress, Chapter fourteen is able to report substantial achievements, especially in the field of environmental regulation.

The final contribution is made by Susan Buckingham-Hatfield. She considers the important, but often neglected, subject of public participation in the formulation of local environmental agendas. This dimension of policy making and application often presents a considerable challenge to local authorities and may force them to rethink the way in which they work with their local communities. Through a case study of a London local authority, she examines the ways in which a local authority has responded to the challenge of engaging the public in the environment debate. The results suggest that there is considerable room for improvement, a message that provides an appropriate finale for a book that reports the results of research in progress.

Reference

Hajer, Μ. Α. (1996), 'Ecological Modernization as Cultural Polities', in Lash, S., Szerszynski, B. and Wynne, B. (eds), Risk, Environment and Modernity, Sage: London.

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• Figures and Tables
• List of contributors
• Acknowledgements
• 1 Introduction: environment, planning and land use
• Part One: Theory and Context
• Part Two: Themes and Issues
• Part Three: Policy and Management