The Politics of Hunger

The Global Food System

John W. Warnock

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2019
• ISBN:
  9781000124347
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Business
• Subtopic: Business General
• Index: Business

Originally published in 1987. This important and provocative book explains the persistence of hunger, poverty, and the lack of balanced development in many countries and the central role of agriculture in economic development. Most theories of agricultural development are based on the experiences of western Europe and the United States while the two models for successful "late development" have been Japan and the Soviet Union. This book surveys the evolution of agriculture under colonialism in Latin America, Africa, and Asia and concludes that this long period distorted the development prospects for these areas and retarded the production of food. Under strong state capitalist governments, a few underdeveloped countries have broken the colonial patterns of development. However, other post-revolutionary societies are having far less success because of economic blockades and outside military intervention.
While the primary focus of the book is on the short-run problems of inequality, the author examines the long-run ecological and resource constraints to a sustainable food system and raising the standard of living in the underdeveloped world.

CHAPTER ONE

The Persistence of Hunger

Malnutrition is found in all societies. Most commonly it is identified with the poor in underdeveloped countries. In the early 1980s, the mass media dramatically brought us the picture of hunger from Africa—starving children, skin and bone, with their bloated bellies, too weak to even stand up. People in the industrialized western countries responded with an outpouring of funds for famine relief. But the persistent malnutrition experienced by people living in poverty in other areas of the world was largely ignored.

Malnutrition is not limited to those who are forced to exist on inadequate diets; it is also found among those who suffer from excessive consumption. (Eckholm and Record, 1976). The diet of the advanced industrialized countries brings an increase of cancer and heart disease. (Burkitt, 1976; Ackerman, 1972; Prior, 1971.) As Malcolm Caldwell has argued, this is a problem of “overdevelopment,” and it is not limited to the rich or the advanced capitalist states, but is also found in the industrialized state socialist countries. But, for these people, malnutrition is a matter of lifestyle and poses a less serious problem. (Caldwell, 1977:98-138) Our concern must be with the persistence of malnutrition among those who are unable to get enough to eat.

In its early years the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) used the term “undernutrition” to indicate an inadequate intake of calories. The term “malnutrition” was used to describe the lack or deficiency of other basic requirements, particularly protein, vitamins, or minerals. (Poleman, 1983:47) When speaking of nutrition in underdeveloped countries, it is common to concentrate on lack of calories. But Coluther Gopolan, Director of the Nutrition Foundation of India, insists that deficiencies in major nutrients contribute very significantly to undernutrition, and warns that political concentration on the number of calories leads to the assumption that “malnutrition” is of minor concern. (Gopolan, 1983a:591) For the purposes of this study, I have used the term “undernutrition” to describe a deficient diet, whether it derives from a shortage of calories, protein, or other nutrients.

The most common problem in underdeveloped countries today is marasmus, severe chronic undernutrition in children and infants caused by a deficiency in energy. Children of undernourished mothers normally are born with less weight than is normal, and need more than normal nutrition. The most serious effect of early marasmus is impaired growth, particularly brain growth. Marasmus in children results in a reduced number of brain cells and overall brain size.

The other major problem is kwashiorkor, the deficiency of certain amino acids found in protein. This form of malnutrition is often found in areas of the world where the staple foods of the poorer people are either starchy roots or plantains. Where the staple food is a cereal, and adequate intake is available, there is rarely a problem of protein deficiency. However, kwashiorkor can be found where cereals are the staple but where consumption is inadequate. In this case the body consumes the needed protein as energy.

Protein is essential for the growth and development of all body tissues. During digestion, proteins are broken down into amino acids. The body requires 22 amino acids; all but eight of these are produced by the body itself. Thus the eight “essential amino acids” must be supplied by the diet. However, for protein synthesis to occur, all eight must be present at the same time and in the proper proportions. Here Liebig’s Law of the Minimum applies: the amino acids present will be utilized for body development only to the level of the lowest one present; the surplus will be burned as energy or excreted from the body. Most of the staple foods we consume are deficient in at least one amino acid, referred to as “the limiting amino acid” (LAA). Nutritionists refer to “net protein utilization” (or NPU) in classifying certain sources of protein, based on the balance of amino acids.

The term “higher quality” protein is also commonly used. This refers to the fact that certain protein sources have a high level of amino acids, in a good balance, and thus have a high NPU rating. Some of these include eggs, dairy products, and fish, which have an NPU rating of 75% or above. Because red meats and poultry concentrate nutrients, they supply a high percentage of limiting amino acids. In contrast, cereals are often described as “low quality proteins,” because they all are relatively deficient in one or more of the essential amino acids. For example, wheat is low in lysine and theonine, rice in methionine, and maize in lysine and tryptophan.

Where fish, meat, or dairy products are in short supply or too expensive to buy, it is essential to supplement the staple grain with other food sources that balance the amino acids. For example, in Latin America maize and rice are balanced with beans, in the Caribbean rice is balanced with peas, in China rice is balanced with soya, in India wheat and rice are balanced with pulses, and in the Middle East wheat is eaten with cheese.

The B vitamins are essential to human development, and it is widely recognized that they should be consumed together. Most of them are present in adequate amounts in whole grain cereals. However, vitamin B12 is only available in meats, eggs, and dairy products; it is not present in plant foods. Nutritionists agree that this vitamin is necessary in small amounts for proper body growth.

Poor people generally have limited diets. Often they do not have access to high quality proteins. If they are also denied a mix of foods to provide all the essential amino acids, to acquire adequate protein they must consume additional amounts of the staple cereal. Yet very often this is not possible.

Undernutrition is not limited to insufficient protein or calories. The lack of key vitamins and minerals in a diet can lead to common diseases. Lack of vitamin A, or carotene, can lead to blindness; it is a serious problem where lower income classes have only limited access to fresh vegetables, or to fish liver oil or dairy products, its major sources. Where vitamin D is lacking, it can lead to rickets among infants and children. It is found in high altitudes and in urban slums where exposure to sunlight is limited. Lack of milk or eggs is also a common cause.

Scurvy (lack of vitamin C) is found where a diet is deficient in fruits and vegetables. Among infants it can occur in those under one year of age who have not been breast fed. Niacin is very important for the body when diets are heavy in sugar and starches. Pellagra (niacin deficiency) is found in societies where there is heavy reliance on maize, sorghum, or millet as a staple food, all of which are low in the amino acid, tryptophan. Milk consumption has been the traditional cure for pellagra.

Lack of thiamin (Vitamin Bl) can result in beri-beri, which was once known as the “scourge of the East.” Though it is found in the husks of cereals, it is removed in milling and refining. Thus, cultures that are dependent on polished rice have had a history of beri-beri. Thiamin is essential for the normal metabolism of refined sugar and starches.

A common problem in underdeveloped countries is iron-deficiency anemia, in which the amount of hemoglobin in red blood cells is reduced. Iron is found in eggs, meat, pulses, and whole grains. In tropical countries, anemia is also produced through blood loss caused by intestinal parasites, or where certain vegetables are eaten that interfere with iron availability. Other common problems of undernutrition include vitamin K deficiency in infants, riboflavin deficiency, and endemic goitre. (Last, 1980:1474-1484; Scrimshaw and Young, 1976; Kirschmann, 1975; Pyke, 1970:110-127)

There is a close relationship between undernutrition and health problems, particularly infectious diseases. There is a decrease in intestinal absorption of nutrients when diarrheal diseases are present. The body’s stress response to infectious diseases results in an increase in the excretion of nitrogen, vitamin A, vitamin C, zinc, and other nutrients. Thus, a sick person needs additional nutrition over and above what is required by a normal healthy person. It is not surprising to find that infectious diseases are often accompanied by nutritional anemia.

In low-income areas, once the protective effect of breast milk diminishes, a child is often exposed to infectious diseases like measles, chicken pox, and whooping cough which, combined with a low nutrient intake, can result in poor health and development. If diarrhea develops, growth is even more stunted, and death can occur.

The human body fights infectious diseases by the formation of antibodies. It is now well known that deficiencies in protein, vitamin A, vitamin C, thiamine, riboflavin, pyridoxine, folic acid, vitamin B12, and iron interfere with normal antibody formation. The immune system acts through the development of T-cells and B-cells whose production varies according to the availability of essential nutrients. The reduction of these cells has been linked to decreased resistance to infection among those suffering from mild to moderate undernutrition. (Last, 1980:1484-1490)

It is well established that in the underdeveloped countries there is a close and even synergistic relationship between undernutrition and infectious diseases. (See Gopolan and Rao, 1984; Delgado et al, 1983; Chossudovsky, 1983; Escudero, 1978; Field and Levinson, 1974) While governments are often willing to spend considerable sums curing infectious diseases, they are much more reluctant to finance the major preventative measure—the reduction of undernutrition. From a political perspective, it is much easier for governments in capitalist countries to expand in the area of medical services. Getting involved in the area of distribution of food is much more difficult, because it requires a move into the economic area and may infringe upon the accumulation of private capital.

The effects of undernutrition on human beings are well known. The Institute of Nutrition of Central America and Panama (INCAP) points out that male agricultural workers in tropical developing areas are known for “their small size, leanness, slow working pace, and, in the lowlands, often their pallor.” They are often described as “lazy, inefficient workers” who find it extremely difficult to participate in normal after-work activities; but this is due to lack of food energy and to chronic iron-deficiency anemia. (Viteri, 1974:87)

Coluther Gopolan, Director of the Nutrition Foundation of India, describes chronic undernutrition in his country: “there is a broad twilight zone of morbidity, functional impairment of various kinds, apathy, lack of sense of well-being, poor physical stamina and low productivity.” (Claiborne, 1983) While the lack of mental development is a known characteristic, we are only just beginning to comprehend the behavioural changes that come with prolonged undernutrition. (Gopolan and Rao, 1984:9)

The effects on children are of particular concern. The impact is described by Field and Levinson (1974:100):

Early malnutrition not only leads to physical limitations, but also affects learning and behaviour. Inadequate nutrition during the period of most rapid brain growth may be manifest in neurological damage. Perhaps more important, malnutrition and its accompanying apathy and listlessness may limit the child’s social and emotional interaction with his family and environment.

Setting Nutritional Standards

Over the years there has been continued controversy over the standards set for the normal consumption of calories and protein. The early standards set by the committee of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) were based on achievement levels in the western industrialized countries. They were widely criticized for setting consumption levels unattainable in the underdeveloped countries. By the 1970s many were arguing that consumption standards in the industrialized countries were excessive, and were contributing to new forms of malnutrition associated with overconsumption. Furthermore, western standards did not take into account the reduced physical activity of people now in more sedentary jobs. As a result, a major revision was made in 1973 to try to take into account age, weight, activity level, and environment. The standard “reference man” is now set at between 20 and 39 years of age, weighs 65 kg, has 8 hours of moderate activity per day, 8 hours of rest, and 8 hours of light housekeeping and recreational activities. The standard “reference woman” has a weight of 55 kg and is considered moderately active. The environment is set at an average of 10 degrees Celcius. (Mehta, 1982:1332, 1339)

One prominent critic (Poleman, 1983:42-47) notes that the trend since 1953 has been continued downward modification of the standards. For example, most recently the number of kilocalories (kcal) set for the standard U.S. “reference man,” now considered to be “not very active,” is 2700 per day, down 500 kcal from the 1953 level. This is based on the 1973 FAO/ WHO recommendations for daily consumption: 50 kcal per kilogram of body weight for an adult living midway between moderate and very active levels of activity. Prior to the 1974 World Food Conference, the FAO/WHO adopted a different standard for use in the underdeveloped countries: setting minimal energy requirements at 1.5 times the basal metabolic rate (1.5 BMR) allowing for a +/- 20% standard deviation. Many have suggested that this new standard is too low. In 1971 the FAO/WHO-recommended daily protein consumption for adults was reduced from 61 grams to 40 grams.

Since the days of the League of Nations, international and national public health authorities have been setting recommended daily allowances (RDAs) of basic nutrients. These averages, based on sampling, assume that individual variations are distributed on a bell-shaped curve around the mean requirement. Those set in the United States, and most commonly cited, are intended to cover only healthy people, and are often inadequate for people suffering from acute or chronic diseases. (Scrimshaw and Young, 1976:60-62)

The Indian Council of Medical Research sets its standard...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Original Title Page
• Original Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Table of Contents
• Preface
• CHAPTER 1 The Persistence of Hunger
• CHAPTER 2 Ideological Approaches to World Hunger
• CHAPTER 3 Agriculture and Economic Development
• CHAPTER 4 Agriculture and Late Development: Latin America and Africa
• CHAPTER 5 The European Impact on Asia
• CHAPTER 6 The Industrial Food System
• CHAPTER 7 The Unequal Distribution of Population and Foodlands
• CHAPTER 8 The Loss of Foodland Resources
• CHAPTER 9 How Much Food Can the World Produce?
• CHAPTER 10 Developing Food and Agriculture under Capitalism
• CHAPTER 11 Alternatives for Underdeveloped Countries
• CHAPTER 12 Summary and Conclusion
• INDEX