Applied Agricultural Research

Foundations And Methodology

Chris O Andrew

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2019
• ISBN:
  9780429715884
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Social Sciences
• Subtopic: Sociology
• Index: Social Sciences

The desire to resolve problems through pragmatic observation, systematic evaluation, and coordinated action persists with each new generation of researchers. A timeless task that bears individual, social, and often cultural characteristics, problem resolution is essentially an experiential process. Routine and methodology can enhance both its proce

1
Introduction

Lingering on and ever more demanding is the desire to resolve problems through pragmatic observation, systematic evaluation and concerted action. The process repeats itself. Each new generation of research scientists emerges to confront the challenge of food production and distribution, to face extensive world hunger and malnutrition. Additionally the natural and human resource bases for agricultural production, as well as the research resource base for technology development to enhance productivity, are becoming more difficult to sustain. But the demand for effective and efficient research methodology directed to resolving real-world problems continues and increasingly is more important.

As an age-old task that bears individual, social and sometimes cultural characteristics, problem resolution is essentially an experiential process. Routine and methodology can enhance both the process and the experience. In tackling the development of a course on research methodology more than twenty-five years ago and in preparation of the text Planning and Conducting Applied Agricultural Research, we aspired to teach young agricultural economists to become researchers. We wanted to improve the process of problem identification, of selecting alternatives and priorities to help explain and resolve the problem, and the specification of research objectives to effectively and efficiently guide the needed tasks of observation and analysis. Applying methodology to problem solving, much as with reading or speaking, has natural tendencies. Proficiency and efficiency, however, in research require accumulation and transfer of individual and communal experience. But if we accept that the approach to research is a relatively deliberate yet natural progression to finding solutions, and note that method and technique often dominate present disciplinary thought and application, what role is there for instruction in research methodology?

The questions are: “Can the process of research be taught?” and “Will research technique and discipline bow to the broader process of research?” We believe that little can be taught but that a great deal can be learned in an enhanced experiential context. In its deceiving simplicity, this text attempts to help structure a learning environment for improving skills and processes in the methodology of applied research. Problem resolution displays cultural characteristics and individual initiative of each person in a cultural group. Scientific research intensifies this quest for knowledge to resolve problems. Learning and conditioning the methodology of research continues as each new generation of researchers enters the subculture of scientific investigators.

Misidentification of researchable problems, selection of non-priority alternative solutions, and use of inappropriate tools of analysis persist. In the face of evermore complex concerns and resource limitations, there remains ample room for becoming more efficient and effective in service to humankind. We humbly remind you that the young man identified in our first book is somewhere out there still seeking to understand the problem of his client…

About midmorning on a fine September day, the Minister of Agriculture is just completing a phone conversation as the door to her office opens to admit one of the young men in the research group from the Planning Department of the Ministry. At about the same time the Vice Minister and the head of planning enter and the four people seat themselves around a small conference table. The Minister opens the meeting, directing her comments to the Vice Minister: “I’m told that we have a final report on that project on importing fertilizer, that’s great. It’s just in time. Now we ought to be able to convince the import-export people that they can’t reduce our request for fertilizer and still expect us to meet our new trade commitments.”

Turning to the young researcher, the Minister says encouragingly, “OK, young man, they tell me you’ve made an excellent study. Now tell us exactly how much fertilizer is it going to take over the next five years to meet our production targets?”

“Ma’am?” replies the researcher, apparently a little confused.

“Come, come, now, don’t be nervous. Just tell us about the research you’ve been doing. What are the results?” The Minister realizes the researcher may be a bit timid.

“Oh, yes, Ma’am,” smiles the researcher, “thank you.”

“Well, as soon as we got your request for information on the importance of fertilizer, we checked to see what data we had on Japan and some other countries where there have been recent increases in production. We thought this ought to give us some good ideas about the relationship between fertilizer use and crop production. Here, Ma’am, we have a series of graphs showing the correlation between these two variables for a number of countries.”

“Yes,” replies the Minister, “it’s quite evident that fertilizer is important in increasing crop output. Now, how much are we going to need?”

The researcher continues, “According to the latest census, which unfortunately is several years old as you know, only about 40 percent of our farmers are using any fertilizer. This is considerably below the rate in the other countries I mentioned. And in those countries income per farm family has been increasing rapidly, again demonstrating the importance of fertilizer.” The minister nearly interrupts but lets the researcher continue. “Now if we want to double the number of farmers using fertilizer, we might be able to assume that we need twice as much fertilizer as now.”

“Yes, I suppose,” replies the Minister, “but what about the land area involved and what about the requirements for the different crops?”

The researcher, thumbing back through his report answers, “We don’t have any information on area of each crop that is fertilized but cotton and sugarcane consume about 80 percent of the fertilizer used and…”

He is interrupted by the Minister who says, “But don’t you have any estimates of the quantities required to get the production we need over the next five years? Our problem is that they want to cut back on fertilizer imports to help domestic fertilizer production just at the time we have to try to increase crop production in a big hurry. We need to know how that could affect our program and how much importation we need to ask for.” Turning to the head of the planning group she says, “I thought we discussed this pretty thoroughly that day it came up. What happened?”

“Well, that’s right, and I knew we were going to have a hard time convincing them how important fertilizer was in our program and I know we talked about that in my office, didn’t we?” the head of planning asks the young researcher.

The most serious consequence of weak applied research is the cost associated with not having relevant information for making decisions.

“Yes, sir,” replies the young man, “we knew we had to get you some good information on the importance of fertilizer and that’s why I have this information on Japan and those other countries.”

“Well,” replies the Minister, “that’s not going to be much help in solving our problem. We have the meeting with them tomorrow. But maybe we could hold off a decision for a couple of days if you think you can get me the information we need by that time. Why don’t you call someone at the experiment station? Maybe they can help you. But you better get going. Don’t forget how important fertilizer is to us…”

There are several important points in this dialogue which, though fictional, represents a real-life situation encountered much too frequently. The most important point is that after waiting right up to the deadline, the Minister, who is the client, did not obtain the information she needed for a meeting of great importance. As a result, the research costs incurred by the Planning Department for this project yielded little of value. The most serious consequence, of course, is the cost associated with not having the relevant information for making the decision at the meeting. Although some of the reasons for the unfortunate situation are evident in the dialogue, others are more subtle. Regardless of the reasons, we hope this book will contribute to the more effective use of research resources and help prevent the kind of unhappy discussion as that between the Minister and the researcher.

Applied Research

Research is the orderly procedure by which people increase their knowledge and is contrasted to accidental discovery because it follows a series of steps designed precisely for the purpose of developing information.¹ Knowledge gained by research may be used by people to produce a greater abundance of food and fiber, to lighten the burdens of their labor, or in any number of ways to generally improve their well being. Or new knowledge may simply be added to the store of concepts about the universe to await application at some future point in time. Research undertaken specifically for the purpose of obtaining information to help resolve a particular problem is applied research. For a research undertaking to be applied research it is not necessary that the results (the new knowledge) resolve or help resolve the problem which initiated the project (though hopefully they will), but it is necessary that the research have a specific problem orientation. It is this kind of research, oriented to resolution of specific problems, toward which this book is directed.

The development of Mexican or dwarf wheat was the result of an applied research process oriented toward the resolution of a specific problem [Paarlberg, 1969]. A fertilizer experiment oriented toward making recommendations to farmers is another example, as is the work of a government planner trying to estimate the likely supply response to fertilizer for a particular commodity under a proposed new program, or the total fertilizer requirements necessary to reach specified production goals, as in our dialogue. Determining acceptability of a newly developed feed concentrate for fattening hogs in tropical areas or the development of a hand seeder for steep terrain in primitive areas, assuming the lack of each represented a problem, also would be classified as applied research. In general, the research referred to in this book is oriented toward providing useful information to decision makers such as farmers and public administrators.

An effective applied research methodology is directed toward the efficient use of available research resources to maximize the probability of achieving meaningful results to help resolve problems.

Applied research, such as that just described, is carried out in all parts of the world. It is a much more widespread activity than fundamental research which is a necessity but one that only the wealthiest countries can afford. Most applied research is conducted under moderate to severe resource limitations which necessitate efficiency in the research process. Disappointment in the results of applied research - a “So what?” response - in most instances can be traced directly to the use of an inadequate and/or ineffective applied research methodology which failed to correctly identify the problem.

An effective applied research methodology is directed toward the efficient use of available research resources to maximize the probability of achieving meaningful results to help resolve problems. Recent methodological work has enhanced the productivity of research resources. Farming Systems Research and Extension (FSRE) methodology has emerged in part to help deal with limited resources for production and farm management research. Advances in interview processes have improved problem identification and analysis in marketing systems research, resulting in more effective and efficient research resource use. New approaches are emerging for the study of natural resource use and for policy formulation.

The basic theme of this book is that of applied research as a service to a client with a problem for which the information obtained by research can help resolve. Because applied research has a definite purpose, there is usually a time constraint or deadline within which the work must be completed as well as a limit on the other resources the client has available or is willing to use in the resolution of the particular problem. Consequently, the researcher must be cognizant of the efficient use of the research resources while at the same time functioning so as to maximize the likelihood of providing a useful product to the client. The book is also useful to graduate students who are trying to define and execute a project that is subject to completion in a specified (finite) time period.

Besides the approach to applied research (covered in the book), another important factor affecting success in serving clients is the research environment within which researchers labor. An applied researcher cannot be effective in satisfying clients when he or she is isolated from them by a system that reduces or prevents effective communication.² This can happen, for example, when extension service personnel with direct client contact have little communication with researchers even though they may be in the same organization. It can also happen in research organizations in which projects are dictated by administrators who have little contact with the clients and hence have no appreciation of their real problems. This could be an argument for maintaining small research organizations. More importantly, it is an argument for an organization in which researchers maintain close personal contact with their clients and where researchers in turn share in determining the research priorities of the organization. Recent experience with on-farm research has demonstrated the value of research, extension and farmer (client) collaboration. We suggest that a better coordinated working relationship between research and extension administrators, researchers, extension people and clients will develop if all understand the approach to problem identification which is presented in this book.³

The Book

Perhaps the most critical deficiency in methodology is the failure to adequately identify the specific problem toward which research is to be oriented (as happened to the researcher in the Ministry). This may result when the researcher uncritically accepts the problem as stated by the client or by his or her spokesperson (the “importance of fertilizer” was not the Minister’s problem). It may also happen when one is not really sure who the client is - farmer, policy maker, marketing firm, consumer, peer, administrator or someone else. Another serious deficiency may occur even after properly identifying the problem. This is the failure to formulate hypotheses and objectives correctly oriented toward the resolution of the problem or failure to use appropriate analytical techniques and theory (what hypotheses did the Ministry researcher use?). The most critical components of the process are formed from the interrelationships exposed by problem identification, hypotheses, objectives, analytical techniques, and resource constraints. These topics are all covered in the book.

Practical experience is invaluable in helping the researcher overcome the obstacles which are so often encountered in applied research. In all phases of the material to be presented, the difficulties associated with sub-optimum research conditions under which the individual researcher is apt to be working are considered.

In this book, we have divided the topics into separate chapters and the chapters into three parts. Neither the parts nor the materials in any chapter are independent.

In Part One, we address the role of theory and your (the researcher’s) role in research, two very important, but often overlooked, resources. We are concerned with the necessary linkage between your problem solving skills, in the process of knowledge gathering and application, and the process of structuring knowledge commonly found in the development of theory.⁴

Perhaps the most critical deficiency in methodology is die failure to identify the specific problem.

Planning activities are discussed in Part Two of the book. In planning the research project, one must always assess the means available for conducting the research, and during the research process it may be necessary to modify portio...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• List of Figures
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• 1 Introduction
• PART ONE FOUNDATIONS AND APPLIED RESEARCH
• PART TWO PLANNING APPLIED RESEARCH
• PART THREE CONDUCTING APPLIED RESEARCH
• References Cited
• Appendix: Applied Research Project Proposals
• Index