Quantitative Research Methods in Consumer Psychology

Contemporary and Data Driven Approaches

Paul Hackett

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2018
• ISBN:
  9781317280415
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: Research & Methodology in Psychology
• Index: Psychology

Quantitative consumer research has long been the backbone of consumer psychology producing insights with peerless validity and reliability. This new book addresses a broad range of approaches to consumer psychology research along with developments in quantitative consumer research. Experts in their respective fields offer a perspective into this rapidly changing discipline of quantitative consumer research. The book focuses on new techniques as well as adaptations of traditional approaches and addresses ethics that relate to contemporary research approaches.

The text is appropriate for use with university students at all academic levels. Each chapter provides both a theoretical grounding in its topic area and offers applied examples of the use of the approach in consumer settings. Exercises are provided at the end of each chapter to test student learning. Topics covered are quantitative research techniques, measurement theory and psychological scaling, mapping sentences for planning and managing research, using qualitative research to elucidate quantitative research findings, big data and its visualization, extracting insights from online data, modeling the consumer, social media and digital market analysis, connectionist modeling of consumer choice, market sensing and marketing research, preparing data for analysis;, and ethics. The book may be used on its own as a textbook and may also be used as a supplementary text in quantitative research courses.

1
Quantitative Research

Its Place in Consumer Psychology

Cathrine V. Jansson-Boyd

The use of scientific methodologies to explain consumer behaviours is a relatively recent phenomenon, even though there were some early well-known psychologists, such as William James and John Watson, who indirectly or directly applied their understanding to consumer-related aspects (Jansson-Boyd & Marlow, 2017). The field of consumer psychology has blossomed in the last few decades out of an amalgamation of different areas such as psychology, marketing, advertising, sociology, and anthropology. It seems that consumer behaviour is a natural extension of many of the theories produced within the aforementioned areas. However, recent years have seen many new theories being developed that are more specifically constructed to explain consumer thought processes and behaviours.

The rapid development of models and theories within consumer psychology is a parallel progression to the expansion of the field as a whole. Such expansion is applicable both to the number of people conducting research within the area and the integration of ideas and methods from related disciplines. With the rapid growth, research has become ever more competitive as researchers strive to move our understanding of this discipline forward. Now more than ever it is essential to have a good and clear understanding of research methods as well as an in-depth knowledge of the specific areas that are being investigated. This is particularly important as consumer behaviour is becoming increasingly complex. The complexity stems from the fact that consumer psychology has become a field in which the theoretical underpinnings are drawn from a wide range of sister disciplines (e.g. social psychology, neuroeconomics, cognitive psychology, marketing, economics, advertising, sociology and neuroscience). This means that researchers now need a broader knowledge base in order to ensure that they have a good understanding of their favoured research topic, with the result being that consumer psychology is a truly applied research area. However, it does pose some difficulties, such as that researchers need to have a broader understanding of human behaviour in order to understand how their own work fits. This opens up new opportunities for using different types of research methods that may be borrowed from a related discipline. Venturing into using new techniques and equipment may require training. Thus, researchers are faced with different research skills requirements to those needed previously.

This chapter will introduce you to the idea that theory has an important role to play within consumer psychological research. It will provide you with an overall perspective of why consumer scientists need to distinguish between quantitative and qualitative research methods. Furthermore, the chapter will explain how quantitative methods set themselves apart from qualitative methods, as well as why consumer psychologists have increasingly relied on quantitative methods as their preferred method of investigation. The chapter will outline how traditional quantitative approaches have changed to include what are seen as less traditional techniques that are often based on techniques used by related disciplines such as neuroscience. ‘Borrowing’ quantitative research methods from related areas has undoubtedly helped deepen the understanding of consumer behaviour by encouraging systematic investigation of consumer psychology. Hence the chapter will outline the significance of having a good understanding of different types of methodologies as well as statistical comprehension.

Chapter Learning Objectives

The main take away message from this chapter is that quantitative research is fundamental to consumer psychology. However, as with any scientific discipline, there is also room for qualitative work depending on what is being investigated. Thus, it is not proposed that taking a quantitative approach to consumer research is the be-all and end-all. Once you have read this chapter, you should have an appreciation that consumer psychological research should be driven by a clear and coherent understanding of the topic investigated. You should recognize that it is the concepts that you wish to investigate and the suited theoretical underpinnings that should guide the research processes and chosen methodology. As a scientist, it is imperative to recognize that one cannot take the approach that ‘one model fits all’ kinds of research. Many scientists appear to prefer to repeatedly use certain types of methods. However, science progresses better when ensuring that the methods used are fit for purpose. Hence, it may at times mean that you will have to step out of your comfort zone and that you will have to use a quantitative or qualitative methodology or even a mixed methods approach that you have not previously used. Undoubtedly, it can be difficult to come to grips with different paradigms and perspectives (Kuhn, 1970). Nonetheless, consumer psychologists should embrace the idea that research is a creative process and never be afraid of experimenting with new techniques if this is what is going to give you the most robust results.

The role of theory

A theory is effectively a set of interconnected ideas, definitions, and propositions that explains or predicts events or situations by specifying the relationship among variables (Campbell & Pennebaker, 2017). It is a key ingredient in the research process, and it is essential to know how you should use theories, as it will make you more successful when it comes to generating research questions. How theories are developed differs, as some are based on a conceptual framework whilst others have empirical underpinnings. Increasingly, ‘testability’ of a theory is important, in particular in consumer psychology, as it otherwise may lack real-life application and thus cast a shadow of doubt on the usefulness of the theories. After all, consumer psychology deals with real-life concepts, so it is therefore important that the theories are ecologically valid.

For all consumer theories, the idea of generality and/or broad application is important. Hence, a theory is by its very nature abstract and not topic specific. Some theories may emphasize or address the same general ideas. However, each theory is unique by the terminology used to communicate the factors deemed to be important.

For most research topics, successful interventions are clearly dependent on the use of appropriate theory. Different theories may be better suited to different types of research such as, for example, groups, individuals or organizations. Also, ask yourself if the theories you intend to draw upon provide your work with the insight required to make your research findings more ecologically valid.

Consumer psychology as a discipline has been under fierce critique that it is often working within a narrow framework. Pham (2013) has even labelled the restrictive ways of working as a consumer a psychological sin. Such labelling stems from the fact that the discipline has traditionally focussed too much on three specific theoretical paradigm, which are cognitive psychology, social psychology, and behavioural decision theory (Pham, 2013). Narrow frameworks can restrict the applicability of research findings to anything other than academics and in some cases not even other researchers (Pham, 2013). This is unfortunate, as consumerism is very much a part of our everyday lives, and thus research within this field should genuinely investigate what happens in real life. Consumer psychology should also aim to keep pace with the rest of the scientific community, and there has globally been a shift to emphasize real-life application. This is something that is evident from funding calls made by research councils as well as research-based governmental funding (e.g. the Research Excellence Framework (REF) in the UK). Ideally, as an applied researcher, your work should aim to reach far and wide, and it is therefore essential to pick the ‘right’ theories that can help you to achieve such an aim. This may mean that you at times need to be ‘bold’ in your decisions and look for new and novel theories that you may wish to borrow from other (related) disciplines. Recently, within consumer psychology, there has been an increasing amount of work that is drawing on emotion theory and culturally based theories (e.g. see the recent International Handbook of Consumer Psychology edited by Jansson-Boyd & Zawisza, 2017). Additionally, as consumer psychologists have a relatively newfound interest in consumer neuroscience, we have also seen new ideas emerging on the back of neuroscientific studies. Hence, there has been some expansion in regard to the underpinnings used, even though this can be advanced further. Pham (2013) proposed that researchers should be open to use multiple theories and move away from pressures to differentiate their work by the use of a unique theoretical explanation, which he refers to as ‘theoretical tyranny’. Others have proposed that the obsession with theory and a narrow understanding may be hampering the development of new models and theories (Schwarz & Stensaker, 2014). This casts some doubts on what is the best method for moving science forward. Incorporating different types of theories (whether one or several) may at least help to overcome one common problem within consumer psychology, which is the tendency that researchers have to focus on the acquisition stage and largely ignore other consumption related activities (Pham, 2013; Sheth, 1982; Wells, 1993). Perhaps scientists should be braver and, at least occasionally, deviate from the ‘constraints’ of theories. However, there needs to be some caution so that the “baby is not thrown out with the bathwater”. Researchers should, at least for now, be encouraged to make use of sound theoretical knowledge, though they should be bold in their choices and branch out to look for underpinnings that can aid the exploration of new and exciting areas.

Theories, Be-All and End-All?

There is no doubt that the use of theories has advanced the field of consumer psychology. Equally, they are a critical tool in providing researchers with a good framework for further testing. However, by continuing to use the same theoretical structure as before, it is possible that consumer psychologists may hamper progress or at least decrease the pace at which we further the understanding of the discipline. This is because there can be an overreliance on theories, ultimately constraining researchers from thinking outside the box and exploring different perspectives that could lead to a new theoretical framework that may take us in an entirely new and different direction. That is not to suggest that theories are redundant but rather that researchers may at times need to be brave enough to deviate from what is currently considered to be the norm. Alba (2012) has noted that some of the more exciting findings within the area of consumer behaviour have come from work that can be described as descriptive. For example, Dickson and Sawyer (1990) observed supermarket shoppers and found that they have poor awareness of the prices of products they have just purchased. It is findings such as the aforementioned that have led to the proposal that consumer psychologists should more commonly consider broadening the epistemology used (Pham, 2013).

What Method?

There is a long-standing debate within the scientific research community in regard to the method that should be employed when conducting research. Usually, this debate is centred on whether to use a quantitative or qualitative approach to research, which is a somewhat crude and broad definition, as it undermines some important differences of each methodological approach. Consumer psychology as a discipline has moved towards the use of quantitative methods, something that has been paralleled with an advanced understanding of the discipline and increased sophistication in statistical analysis. A high number of published studies use experimentally based research structures and thus use statistical means to analyse the data. Effectively, an experiment tries to measure the effects of X on Y by controlling X and measuring Y, while at the same time keeping everything else constant. Hence, X (usually called the independent variable or IV) and Y (usually called the dependent variable or DV) will need to be predetermined. A quick search in the Journal of Consumer Psychology (which is devoted to psychological perspectives on the study of the consumer) reveals that the majority of the papers published in the last ten years are in fact using quantitatively based methodologies. Equally, a high number of consumer-based studies, published in other related journals, also predominantly employ a quantitative approach for investigative purposes. Many areas lend themselves particularly well to be investigated by using experimental designs, such as the role of touch in consumption (e.g. Jansson-Boyd & Marlow, 2007) or how emotions influence consumers (e.g. Gorn, Pham, & Sin, 2001).

A significant proportion of quantitatively based studies make use of questionnaires to gather information about the consumers they wish to target. Questionnaires often allow researchers to gather a great deal of specific information. Just as with experimental studies, these will also be analysed by using statistical means. There are, however, those who question if the use of questionnaires is genuinely an effective tool when it comes to measuring consumer responses (e.g. Reid, 2013). This critique is largely based on the fact that consumers provide socially desirable answers to questions. Equally, questionnaires often fail to measure more subtle aspects that consumers are unaware of, such as implicit thoughts and emotions.

Distinguishing Between Quantitative and Qualitative Research

In order to have a clear appreciation for quantitative methodologies and see how they are best suited for your research, you also need to understand the fundamental key differences between qualitative and quantitative methods. Broadly, both quantitative and qualitative concepts refer to the typology of the research in meanings of technique, instruments, data gathering, and analysis of the data collected. For key differences between quantitative and qualitative methods, see Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Differences Between Quantitative and Qualitative Research

	Quantitative method	Qualitative method
Features	• Data is collected through measuring different aspects • Quantifiable data • Statistical measurement • Positivist theory	• Concerned with understanding human behaviour from an individual perspective • Describes the nature of a phenomenon • Interpretivist theory
Examples of methods used	• Experiments • Questionnaires	• Interviews • Grounded theory • Case studies • Focus groups
Methods of analysis used	• Data is analysed through numerical comparisons • Statistical analysis (e.g. regression, ANOVA, t test)	• Data is analysed by extracting information from information gathered • Thematic analysis • Content analysis

Adapted from M...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Contents
• List of Figures, Tables and Boxes
• List of Contributors
• Acknowledgments
• Preface
• 1 Quantitative Research: Its Place in Consumer Psychology
• 2 Using Contemporary Quantitative Techniques
• 3 Measurement Theory and Psychological Scaling
• 4 Identify, Interpret, Monitor, and Respond to Quantitative Consumer Data on Social Media
• 5 Alternative Research Methods: Introducing Market Sensing—A Qualitative and Interpretive Perspective on Research
• 6 Big Data: Data Visualization and Quantitative Research Apps
• 7 Exploring Ways of Extracting Insights From Big Data
• 8 Contemporary Approaches to Modelling the Consumer
• 9 Connectionist Modelling of Consumer Choice
• 10 Uniting Theory and Empirical Research: Marketing Research and Market Sensing
• 11 Ethical Issues in Conducting Psychological Research
• 12 A User-Friendly Practical Guide to Preparing Data for Analysis
• 13 Integrating and Writing Up Data-Driven Quantitative Research: From Design to Result Presentation
• Index