Programming and Scheduling Techniques

Thomas Uher, Adam Zantis

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2012
• ISBN:
  9781136860492
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Technology & Engineering
• Subtopic: Construction & Architectural Engineering
• Index: Technology & Engineering

Planning is an important management function and its effective execution is crucial to ensure the success of any project. This second edition of Thomas Uher's and Adam Zantis' textbook maintains its focus on operational rather than strategic aspects of programming and scheduling of projects, providing the reader with the practical planning skills needed to be successful.

Unlike most other textbooks that largely focus on the critical path method, Programming and Scheduling Techniques includes a comprehensive review of a range of practices used around the world. Topics covered in this thoroughly revised edition include:

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• deterministic scheduling techniques including the bar chart, the critical path method, the critical chain method, the multiple activity chart and the line of balance
• a comparison of the critical path and critical chain scheduling techniques
• options for computer-based scheduling
• stochastic scheduling techniques including the critical path method based on Monte Carlo simulation and the Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)
• risk in scheduling
• work study.

By covering a broad range of scheduling techniques this book is suitable for those planning projects in any industry, particularly in interdisciplinary or international contexts.

Written for students studying undergraduate and postgraduate architecture, building, construction/project management, quantity surveying, property development and civil engineering programs.

Chapter 1

The Concept of Planning and Control

1.1 Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the concept of planning, and in particular operational planning. A systematic approach to planning will be discussed first, followed by a brief review of different types of planning activities such as strategic, operational and coordinative. A range of planning tools and techniques will then be examined, followed by a discussion on important issues relevant to planning of construction projects. In particular, the distinction will be made between time and resource scheduling. In the next section, an overview of specific planning tasks employed in individual stages of the project lifecycle will be given. Finally, examples of plans, programmes and schedules used in the construction industry will be illustrated.

Planning is one of the four main functions of management. Together with organising, control and leading, it forms the foundation pillars of effective management (Robbins and Coulter 2009). In simple terms, planning is a process of forecasting future outcomes that may be uncertain or even unknown. It means assessing the future and making provision for it by gathering facts and opinions in order to formulate an appropriate course of action. Planning thus develops a strategy and defines expected outcomes (objectives) for undertaking a specific task before committing to such a task.

Once a planning strategy has been determined and objectives defined for a specific task, the manager will select and allocate necessary resources for carrying out the work. This is referred to as ‘organising’. It is the second of the four most important management functions.

Because a plan is only a forecast of some specific future events whose outcomes are uncertain, it would be unreasonable to expect it to be accurate. Realistically, the prudent manager will expect the actual progress to deviate from the plan. Accepting that some deviation will occur, the manager will look for it by regularly monitoring the progress, evaluating uncovered deviations from the plan and replanning the work accordingly. This process is referred to as ‘control’. It is the third of the four important management functions.

‘Leading’ is the fourth management function. While vitally important for achieving project success, it lies outside the scope of this book. The reader is nevertheless encouraged to develop an understanding of the topic of ‘leading’ by reference to any of many published management textbooks.

Planning, organising and control functions are closely linked within a typical production process. This is illustrated graphically in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1 A typical production process.

Planning is the foundation stone of control. It would be pointless to develop a plan if there was no attempt to control its implementation. Effective control of the production process involves its regular monitoring, evaluation and adjustment. The control process needs to be dynamic to reflect changing circumstances caused by issues such as:

• Fluctuations in the level of demand and sales
• Availability of resources
• Changes in the level of economic activity
• Changing strategies of competitors.

1.2 Planning Process

If the main focus were to generate profit and increase it annually, the organisation would regard profitability as its objective and would develop appropriate business strategies for achieving it. Construction projects are no different. They are expected to be completed on schedule, within the cost budget and to the required quality and safety standards. These are the most common objectives of projects.

Establishing objectives is the first step in a typical planning process. Other steps are (Robbins and Coulter 2009):

• Forecasting
• Examining resources
• Establishing policies
• Developing alternatives
• Creating procedures and rules
• Establishing budgets
• Establishing timetables
• Determining standards.

These planning steps will now be briefly discussed.

1.2.1 Setting Objectives

Planning begins by setting objectives and defining strategies for achieving them. It occurs at each organisational level and leads to the development of a comprehensive hierarchy of strategies and actions relevant to the whole organisation as well as to its individual levels of management.

Planning across the entire organisation is a complex, systematic process that requires careful coordination and integration of a wide range of activities. At the top are the objectives of the organisation as a whole. These are broken up from the top down into a set of objectives relevant for each level of organisational activity.

The overall organisational objectives may often be vague. Becoming the market leader, increasing profitability, providing the best customer service or promoting best practice serve as examples of organisational objectives that illustrate the degree of their generality.

As organisational objectives are passed down the line, they usually become more specific. For example, objectives of the construction department of a building contractor might be to improve the tender success rate, deliver construction projects ahead of time or improve people's skills. At a project level, objectives become quite specific. For example, in the project period they define its cost and the required quality standards. They may also define safety performance and the maximum permissible level of contractual and industrial disputes. With such specific objectives in place, the project manager is able to assess the actual level of progress and performance once the project is under way.

In setting objectives, particularly those at the organisational level, the company's management should then take a broader view of objectives by asking themselves what business they are in and what their customers really pay them for. If, for example, Hewlett-Packard, which is better known for producing office machines, had not defined its business as ‘supplying information’, its growth could have been inhibited in the fast-expanding field of information technology.

Similarly, in setting their own objectives, the subordinate managers need to identify what the organisation really wants from them and from their functional units or projects. This process will ensure that objectives are correctly defined and properly integrated cross the entire organisation. They will then form an integrated network or ‘a means–ends chain’ (Robbins and Coulter 2009) where the objectives at a lower level (referred to as means) need to be satisfied if the objectives at the next higher level (referred to as ends) are to be met.

Setting objectives from the top down has its advantage in that subordinate managers know what they need to achieve within their sphere of responsibility. Sometimes, however, managers down the line may become frustrated when their input is not sought from above in setting the objectives. This may impact negatively on managers' motivation and lead to inefficiency.

The ideal scenario is when managers down the line are asked to contribute to setting objectives and the formulation of plans for reaching them. For example, state managers of a construction company may be required to forecast the future volume of work in their respective states and suggest strategies for increasing turnover. This information would help top management in developing the overall corporate objectives. When objectives are set jointly by subordinates and their superiors across different levels of organisation, and rewards allocated on the basis of achieving progress, management practice is referred to as ‘management by objectives’ (MBO). It is a popular and well-established system for setting objectives and ensuring their successful accomplishment (Robbins and Coulter 2009).

1.2.2 Forecasting

Forecasting is the estimation of future controllable and uncontrollable events and opportunities pertinent to an organisation's business activities. It involves systematic assessment of future conditions, such as economic climate, political and social issues, future demand for goods and services, changes in the population growth, and the like.

Forecasts are by their very nature always wrong. It is therefore the manager's task to continually revise and update the information upon which the forecasts and ultimately decisions are made.

1.2.3 Examining Resources

The achievement of objectives is largely dependent on the correct allocation of resources in the form of people, materials, plant, equipment, money and time, and their effective management.

Even well-defined plans may go astray. When, for example, a construction project falls behind its schedule and the project manager is unable to speed it up by simply making the committed resources work harder or by improving the work method, often the only remedy available is to inject additional resources. These, however, may not be available when needed, or may not have the required skill or capacity. Furthermore, the cost of injecting additional resources may be prohibitive, particularly in the case of heavy plant or equipment. The manager's task is to allocate enough resources to achieve the given objectives and to make contingency plans for securing additional resources for times when they might be needed.

1.2.4 Establishing Policies

Policies are guides for thinking. They govern the execution of activities within an organisation. They are the foundation of an organisation and provide a broad pathway for workers to follow in order to achieve an objective. The recruitment and the promotion policies serve as examples of typical organisation policies.

Organisations form their own policies, but sometimes policies are imposed by external sources such as governments. The New South Wales Government procurement policy (NSW Government 2004) is an example of a policy externally imposed on organisations bidding for government work.

1.2.5 Developing Alternatives

No planning task is accomplished without the development of plausible alternatives. All possible courses of action need to be identified and evaluated, even those that may appear to be unusual or even ridiculed by some. It may well be that the most unusual alternative will provide the best solution for achieving the objectives if assessed objectively.

1.2.6 Creating Procedures and Rules

Within the bounds of the organisation's policies, procedures and rules provide a precise recipe for the manager to follow in taking action. Procedures define a logical sequence of ste...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Contents
• List of tables
• List of figures
• Abbreviations
• Preface
• 1. The concept of planning and control
• 2. Bar charts
• 3. The critical path method
• 4. Resource management
• 5. Overlapping network models
• 6. Project control
• 7. Critical path scheduling by computer
• 8. Critical chain scheduling
• 9. Multiple activity charts
• 10. The line of balance technique
• 11. Work study
• 12. Risk and scheduling
• 13. The Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)
• References
• Index