Special Educational Needs and Disability: The Basics

Janice Wearmouth

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2018
• eBook ISBN: 9780429956621
• Edition: 3
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Education General

Special Educational Needs and Disability: The Basics provides an engaging and comprehensive overview of special educational, and additional support, needs in education contexts in the UK. The third edition of this bestselling publication covers the historical development of special provision and national policy-making, and summarises current and proposed legislation and statutory guidance across England, Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales, examining the fundamental principles of the field from policy to practice.

Additional focus is given to recent legislation in England extending the age range of young people identified as experiencing difficulties from birth to 25 years, and the implications this has for practice. Fully updated to incorporate recent research evidence, this indispensable book covers essential features of policy and practice that teachers need to consider in and outside of the classroom, including:

• the identification and assessment of young people's special or additional learning and behaviour needs, and/or disabilities

• 
  
  

• approaches to planning in order to meet special or additional learning needs of children and young people

• 
  
  

• ways to address barriers to learning and behaviour associated with a variety of difficulties

• 
  
  

• statutory guidance outlined in the Codes of Practice in England (DfE, 2015), Scotland (2010), Wales (2004) and Northern Ireland (1998)

• 
  
  

• special educational, or additional support, needs provision and the wider children's workforce

• 
  
  

• implications of disability legislation across the UK

• 
  
  

This is an ideal starting point for all those with questions about what constitutes special educational, or additional support, needs and disability and how to support those children and young people who experience such needs. It is essential reading for trainee and practising teachers, policy-makers and all those working with young people and their families.

1

MODELS OF HUMAN LEARNING

Behaviourist, constructivist, and eco-systemic approaches

INTRODUCTION

Crucial to understanding difficulties in learning and behaviour, and ways to address these, is familiarity with common frames of reference within which learning and behaviour is viewed. How we understand learning and what lies at the root of a learning or behaviour ‘difficulty’ in school has a very strong influence on how we respond. Over the years, different social or psychological understandings, together with the different frames of reference that are associated with each one, have given rise to different interventions to address needs in education.

There is an important, though in some ways simplistic, distinction that we can make between the view that the mind is a passive recipient of knowledge and merely reacts to outside influence, and the view that it is pro-active in interpreting and constructing the world. In terms of frames of reference from educational psychology, a passive view of the human mind is most commonly reflected in the behaviourist model. Here all behaviour is assumed to be learned. Underlying behavioural principles is a basic concern with observed events, that is what people actually do, not on assumptions about intentions or statements about behaviour and its effects. In the world of provision for special educational needs or additional support, individual education, learning or behaviour plans have often been drawn up with interventions designed to shape learning and behaviour that are ‘done to’ the child. A very different view of the human mind, that it is active in reaching out and constructing meaning, is reflected in frames of reference most commonly associated with constructivist and socio-cultural views of learning.

In this chapter, we begin by discussing ways in which learning and behaviour can be interpreted through behaviourist lenses, move on to a consideration of constructivist and social constructivist understandings of learning, look briefly at an eco-systemic position, and conclude with a problem-solving approach to conceptualising provision for young people who have special educational, or additional support, needs.

UNDERSTANDING LEARNING AND BEHAVIOUR FROM A BEHAVIOURIST VIEW

Principles linked to behaviourist psychology (Skinner, 1938, 1953; Baer et al., 1968) have often dominated thinking about how to intervene when things are seen to have gone wrong in terms of learning and behaviour in educational institutions (Dwivedi & Gupta, 2000). It is particularly important, therefore, to be familiar with the frame of reference associated with this approach.

UNDERSTANDING PRINCIPLES OF BEHAVIOURISM

Behaviourist approaches make the assumption that all behaviour is learnt. Where the problem is located determines where the solution is to be found. There are two different ways of looking at this:

• Firstly, research over a long period of time suggests that aspects of a setting may exert a powerful control over behaviour. It may be that something about a particular learning environment, for example, the physical properties or the presence or behaviour of an adult, has provoked good, or alternatively poor, behaviour and that the young people have come to associate good, or poor behaviour, with that setting (Glynn, 2004). In behaviourist terms, we would consider that the setting has created ‘antecedent conditions’ for that good, or poor, behaviour to occur. The same behavioural principles have often been applied to attempts to modify interactions between teachers and pupils in school contexts. From this view, families and practitioners can encourage compliance at home and in educational institutions and classrooms by making the setting conditions, in other words home, school or classroom rules, very consistent, and the consequences for unacceptable behaviour very clear.

• Secondly, learning may be seen as reinforced by the consequences of the behaviour that is exhibited. Many of the principles of behaviourist approaches were derived from work with laboratory animals, for example, Skinner (1938). Early experiments with animals often assumed that all behaviour is learned through a process of ‘operant’ conditioning, and that behaviours are strengthened or weakened by their consequences. In a famous sequence of trial-and-error learning tasks, rats learned that when they pressed a lever they would be rewarded with food (Skinner, 1938). Learning involved the formation of a stimulus–response association in the rats’ memory, that is, pressing the lever and finding food. Reinforcement through a reinforcer, in this case food, strengthened the association between stimulus and response. If the reward was removed and, hence, the link between pressing the lever and finding the food was broken, the rats’ behaviour would gradually cease through ‘extinction’. Translated into the context of a setting or school, there is an implication from this that young people can learn how to behave appropriately in response to positive reinforcement (rewards). The opposite of positive reinforcement is negative reinforcement. Undesirable behaviour can be discouraged, and desired behaviour encouraged, through putting a stop to something unpleasant. Where something unpleasant occurs as a result of an action it is viewed as ‘punishment’.

Much of the work in response to issues of individual students’ behaviour that is perceived as disturbing by teachers has been based ‘on behavioural management approaches (which employ strategies such as positive reinforcement, response cost, extinction and so on) where the reinforcing conditions or consequences of a behaviour are adjusted in order to moderate its frequency’ (Dwivedi & Gupta, 2000, p. 76). Operant conditioning – reinforcing what teachers want their students to do again, ignoring or punishing what they want students to stop doing – has been widely applied in teaching in UK classrooms since the 1970s (Merrett, 1985). One way to address undesirable behaviour is therefore to ensure that whatever is rewarding and reinforcing is removed so that the behaviour is extinguished. In addition, whenever individuals behave in ways that are seen as more appropriate, they should be rewarded in a way that clearly recognises the greater acceptability of the new behaviour within contexts where that behaviour is clearly acceptable.

Applying behavioural principles to difficulties in behaviour and learning

Behavioural principles can be applied to changing behaviour at individual or group level. Rogers (1994b, 1994c), for example, encourages adopting a behavioural approach towards teaching primary school pupils whom he describes as ‘behaviourally-disordered’ (BD) to take responsibility for their own behaviour. He notes: ‘While most students respond to the normal socialisation into rights-respecting behaviour, some will need to be specifically taught’. He goes on to comment, ‘learning targets can be developed as specific behaviour plans that involve teacher modelling, student-rehearsal and feedback and encouragement in the natural setting of the classroom’ (Rogers, 1994a, pp. 166–167).

Effective behaviour management is not simply about increasing and decreasing behaviours, but also about teaching students to discriminate between settings (times and places) where certain behaviours are appropriate and acceptable, and other settings where they are not. In Rogers’ view, we should not excuse students from ‘taking ownership for their disruptive behaviour’, or ‘facing accountability for such behaviour by facing appropriate consequences’ or ‘learning that behaviour is not an accident of birth or location’, and that ‘one can learn to make better and more conscious choices about behaviour’ (Rogers, 1994a, p. 167). Strategies to maximise students’ learning of new behaviours include ‘shaping’, which breaks complex tasks down into a series of steps and ensures that each step is reinforced in a particular sequence. Other procedures include modelling, where students are rewarded for matching the behaviour being displayed for them.

Individual student behaviour

Individualised behaviour management strategies should make clear to pupils what behaviours are unacceptable and also provide opportunities for modelling, rehearsing and reinforcing behaviours that are acceptable (Rogers, 1994a, pp. 167–169). Behavioural methodology is a scientifically based technology, so the first requirement is a clear definition of the target behaviour. For instance, if a child is thought to be ‘hyperactive’, Merrett (1985) suggests an operational definition of behaviours such as ‘out of seat’ will be required. Once the behaviour has been operationally defined, there should be systematic observational sampling across times of day, situations, nature of activity, person in charge, and so on. Such observations need to be taken over a period of about five days to establish the baseline level of responding. Once the baseline can be clearly seen, an analysis detailing the following three stages should be carried out:

A – the antecedent event(s), that is, whatever starts off or prompts

B – the behaviour, which is followed in turn by

C – the consequence(s).

(Merrett, 1985, p. 8)

Merrett advises that where a consequence of a behaviour ‘is shown to be maintaining [the] behaviour at a high level then that consequence is, by definition, and regardless of its nature, reinforcing it positively’. Telling children off can temporarily choke off certain behaviours, but these may recur after a very short time. This can be ‘very frustrating for the teacher’. However, it may be the teacher’s scolding that is maintaining the child’s behaviour. ‘By definition “ticking off” is positively reinforcing the child’s “attention-seeking” behaviour. If that positive reinforcement is removed, then the rate of occurrence of the behaviour will be reduced. It will eventually become extinguished’ (Merrett, 1985, p. 9).

From a behaviourist perspective, then, and as Rogers (2013) comments, a child’s background is no excuse for poor behaviour. Socially acceptable behaviour is learned and can, therefore, be taught. Key to motivating pupils to choose appropriate behaviour are ‘positive reinforcers’: teacher praise, rewards of various sorts and positive communications with parents. If children disrupt the lesson they should take ownership of this and be given a reminder what the rules are: ‘Jayson … you’re calling out … Remember our class rules for asking questions, thanks’ (Rogers, 2013, p. 238). In classrooms, younger children can be given a non-verbal cue to appropriate behaviour and shown clearly what is expected.

Adults’ behaviour is very important in modelling and reinforcing specific ways of behaving in particular situations. In doing so, it is really important not to allow oneself to be drawn into a power struggle that some young people find rewarding and that is likely to reinforce the way they are behaving. Students may imitate negative as well as positive behaviour however, so, for example, the use of abusive or sarcastic language should be avoided at all costs. This might entail modelling ways of resolving conflict which respect the rights of students to learn and feel safe, and

• meet the needs of both parties, that is, provide win–win outcomes wherever possible

• bring an end to the conflict, or at least reduce it

• do not leave either party ‘wounded’.

(Sproson, 2004, p. 319)

There are a number of techniques that can enable teachers to avoid power struggles with students:

• Some young people may take pleasure in not doing what they are asked immediately, especially if there is an audience of peers. In this situation, Rogers (2013, p. 240) among others advocates that, in the classroom, teachers build in a brief ‘take-up’ period for pupils to respond: ‘“Craig … Deon … you’re chatting – it’s whole-class teaching time.” Make the request, walk away so as to imply compliance, and acknowledge compliance when it happens’.

• The ‘broken record’ approach (Rogers, 2013) also allows teachers to repeat a request calmly without being drawn into an argument. For example, as Sproson (2004, p. 320) exemplifies:

Teacher: John, start your work, thanks.

John: It’s boring.

Teacher: John, start your work, thanks.

John: Didn’t you hear what I said?

Teacher: Start your work, thanks.

John: This lesson’s just so boring … (picking pen up – if you’re lucky!)

Teacher: Pleased to see you getting down to work – well done.

• Pupils bringing inappropriate objects into classrooms or engaging in inappropriate activities might be given what Rogers (2013, p. 242) calls ‘directed choices’. As a newly appointed teacher, the current author’s sister was once in a situation where teenage girls brought long sticks into her mathematics lesson in a class where every student had been suspended the previous term – to test her out, as they later admitted. She simply responded by directing their choices: ‘Shall I put them in this cupboard or that one? I’ll keep them safe for you till the end of the day’. They never asked for them back.

Group behaviour

One very well-known framework for classroom management that has been based on behavioural principles is that of ‘Assertive Discipline’ (Canter & Canter, 1992). ‘Assertive teachers’ communicate expectations to students clearly and confidently, and reinforce words with actions in order to ‘manage’ students’ behaviour in schools. Canter and Canter (1992, p. 12) assert that students need to know ‘without doubt’ what teachers expect of them, what will happen if they choose not to comply, and that appropriate behaviour will be overtly reorganised. They also need to be taught ‘how to choose responsible behavior’ (1992, p. 13).

Canter and Canter (1992, p. 17) see a teacher’s ‘own negative expectations about her [or his] ability to deal with disruptive student behavior’ as major factors preventing teachers from asserting themselves in the classroom. Key to successfully managing classroom behaviour, therefore, are teachers’ positive expectations of their own ability to do this. Clear rules derived from a behaviourist approach enable teachers to do this. They advocate setting up a classroom discipline plan with three parts: rules, positive recognition, and consequences. Rules should be limited in number, focus on observable events, be applicable throughout the time period, apply to behaviour only, and may involve students in their compilation. Key to motivating students to choose appropriate behaviour are ‘positive reinforcers’, which include teacher praise, rewards of various sorts, and positive communications with parents. Teachers are exhorted to teach the classroom discipline plan. They are advised to ‘explain why you have consequences’, to ‘teach the consequences’, and ‘immediately begin reinforcing students who follow the rules’. Rules should be reviewed frequently, at the start of the year and as needed later on. The discipline plan should be posted up in the classroom and sent home to parents (Canter & Canter, 1992, p. 115).

Canter and Canter recommend that teachers should take the time to ‘identify the academic activities, routine procedures and special procedures for which [he or she needs to determine] specific directions’ (1992, p. 123) at the beginning of every year. By ‘specific directions’ they mean ‘identify the classroom situations for which specific directions are needed. Then determine those directions’. Subsequently, ‘teach your specific directions immediately prior to the first time the activity takes place’. It is often also helpful to put posters and other illustrations around the classroom ‘to help remind students of appropriate behavior during different activities and procedures’ (Canter & Canter, 1992, p. 139).

After implementing the stated consequences of a rule-breaking misdemeanour, teachers should look for every opportunity to recognise, and thus ‘shape’, appropriate behaviour.

APPLICATIONS OF A BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH TO NEW LEARNING

In addition to classroom management, when devising programmes for learning new material, behavioural approaches have ...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half-title Page
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Contents
• Note
• Acknowledgements
• Introduction
• 1 Models of human learning
• 2 Special educational, or additional support, needs and disability
• 3 Understanding and addressing difficulties in communication and interaction
• 4 Understanding and addressing difficulties in cognition and learning
• 5 Understanding and addressing difficulties in social, emotional, and mental health
• 6 Understanding and addressing sensory and/or physical difficulties and needs
• 7 Assessment and planning for learners with special educational, or additional support, needs
• 8 The wider children’s workforce associated with special educational needs provision
• References
• Index