Metacognition in Literacy Learning

Theory, Assessment, Instruction, and Professional Development

Susan E. Israel, Cathy Collins Block, Kathryn L. Bauserman, Kathryn Kinnucan-Welsch

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2006
• ISBN:
  9781135606282
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Pedagogía
• Subtopic: Educación general

This volume provides the first comprehensive, research-based examination of metacognition in literacy learning. Bringing together research findings from reading, linguistics, psychology, and education, it is logically organized as follows: Part I provides the theoretical foundation that supports the teaching of metacognition; Parts II and III provide new methods for metacognitive assessment and instruction in literacy contexts at all grade levels; and Part IV provides new information on integrating metacognition into professional development programs. Key features include:
* Chapter Structure. Teacher reflections at the beginning of each chapter illustrate teacher thinking about the chapter topic and metacognitive connections at the end of each chapter link its content with that of the preceding and following chapters.
* Contributor Expertise. Few volumes can boast of a more luminous cast of contributing authors (see table of contents).
* Comprehensiveness. Twenty chapters organized into four sections plus a summarizing chapter make this the primary reference work in the field of literacy-based metacognition.This volume is appropriate for reading researchers, professional development audiences, and for upper-level undergraduate and graduate level courses in reading and educational psychology.

III
Metacognition and Literacy Instruction

As promised for the section opener of part II, once practitioners have understood the rationale, assessment, and analysis of the results that were obtained prior to instruction, they can begin to contextualize metacognitive research in instructional classroom practices. The purpose of part III is to help infuse metacognitive best practices into reading programs. This section begins in an order not typically found in edited research books. Chapter 10, by Israel and Massey, describes two important instructional strategies for middle school students. It begins at the middle school level because, at present, most metacognitive instruction in literacy occurs with young adolescence. This chapter is distinctive in that it not only teaches educators how to provide a gradual release from teacher directed to student initiation in metacognition, but it includes an intact description of how to implement this model. Teachers will receive a list of books that can be used in content areas in which metacognitive literacy strategies can be applied. In addition, readers will find a list of more than 10 think-alouds that can be delivered in the teacher-directed portion of these lessons. Equally important, this chapter presents an important link between teacher instruction and student awareness of their own self-initiation of their own strategies when they are motivated and highly engaged with text.

Knowledge of these strategies makes it easier for the readers to move to chap. 11, which describes the role of self-monitoring and literacy instruction at the elementary level. Joseph provides extremely valuable information and methods for helping 16 students to set goals before they read. His discussion further documents that when students formulate a plan, and self-monitor their implementation of that plan, their results provide significant qualitative and quantitative growth in cognition, literacy behavior, and metacognition. Once Joseph describes each of these processes for building student self-monitoring skills, he provides an innovative lesson for incorporating each of these instructional reproaches into a classroom instructional program that extends beyond the reading classroom. This chapter is unique in that it unifies more than 7 lessons that can be used to build student self-monitoring behavior.

Chapter 12 provides a unique metacognitive experience for readers. Schreiber develops an innovative and comprehensive 24-day lesson plan of integrating metacognition and self-regulation into a literacy reading program. He does so in such a way that you can contrast his ideas to those of Joseph, Israel, and Massey from chapters 10 and 11. Schreiber’s chapter is also innovative in the perspective that it demonstrates how metacognitive instruction can occur for some of our youngest students.

After contrasting the three models presented in chapters 10, 11, and 12, Donndelinger (in chap. 13) pulls readers through a metacognitive lesson in action. He not only integrates comprehension and metacognitive reading strategies, but does so in a manner that has not been possible prior to his research work with children. As you read his classroom strategies and the highly significant effects they have on his children, you may be able to actually visualize the lesson in your classroom. Through his in-depth and vivid descriptions of the work he has done, you will be empowered to enact these same processes and strategies with your children.

We close this section by looking inside two other single classroom lessons. The first classroom is distinct in a multifaceted number of ways. Smith appropriately entitled her chapter “Window into a Thinking Classroom.” She not only generates metacognition, self-regulation, and higher level thinking into a reading lesson, but she describes how she’s able to do this through media in which children are engaged. Similarly, in chapter 15, Cummins, Stewart, and Block describe other lesson formats in which multiple metacognitive abilities can be built. Among the exceptionally high quality features of both chapters is the description of newly award-winning children’s literature and how it can be used to enhance students’ metacognition. Samples of students’ work and pictures of metacognitive lessons in action in the curriculum through reading, art, nonfiction tradebooks, science, social studies, and multicultural studies. After finishing these chapters, you will not only feel empowered that you can provide such high level teaching for your students, but you will be sparked to think about many other creative directions in which you can develop lessons that we have been unable to present in part III of this book. When this occurs, our goal will have been met as editors.

10

Metacognitive Think-Alouds: Using a Gradual Release Model With Middle School Students

Susan E. Israel
University of Dayton

Dixie Massey
North Carolina A&T State University

My knowledge on metacognition is limited. I know only a little about the information in most of the chapters. Using think-alouds is something I am familiar with and use often in my classroom. Thinking aloud is very important when teaching primary grades. Students have limited knowledge on strategies needed to understand nonfiction texts. Talking through the pictures and making predictions shows students how to do it on their own. Thinking aloud as you reread and find important parts of a passage is essential in showing students the correct way to do it on their own.

—Julie Kimpel, Fourth-Grade Teacher, Englewood Hills, Northmont City Schools

Think-aloud is a metacognitive process that students use in which their thoughts are verbalized while reading a selection of text, thus modeling the process of comprehension (Block & Israel, 2004). According to Baker (2002), metacognition is a reflective process in which think-aloud strategies provide a method for students to become cognitively engaged in reading. In addition, Massey (2003) suggested think-aloud can be used as instructional tools to scaffold comprehension awareness. This chapter examines the theory, research, and practices that relate to think-aloud strategy instruction and their effects on metacognition. By chapter’s end, you will have answers to the following questions: How are think-alouds related to improved student achievement and motivation? Why is nonfiction important when using think-alouds? How can think-alouds be used before, during, and after reading to improve comprehension? And, how can think-alouds be assessed?

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE AND RESEARCH IN REVIEW

This chapter investigates how the think-aloud strategy is used with middle school readers when reading nonfiction text. Research in the following areas of metacognition, think-aloud, and nonfiction text with middle school readers is summarized to explain the importance of understanding features of nonfictional text selections: changing instructional strategies to realize excellence, understanding how think-aloud strategies can be used to advance middle school readers’ achievements, motivation and the adolescent reader, and the role of instruction using nonfiction text with middle school readers.

Awareness of one’s thinking is necessary for students to be able to monitor their comprehension (Pressley, 2002). Good readers recognize when they do not understand a text. Poor readers may fail to recognize that the reading no longer makes sense to them, or they may not know what to do when they do recognize a comprehension breakdown.

This thoughtfulness is the essence of metacognition—knowledge about one’s thinking processes. But, in order to help students be metacognitive, teachers must first become more aware of their own thinking. They can help students learn to be thoughtful and purposeful readers through thinking aloud about their own comprehension strategies when reading a text and then allowing students to practice using the strategies and thinking aloud (Duffy, 2003). As Pressley (2002) pointed out, “It seems especially helpful if such practice provides opportunities to explain one’s strategies and reflect on the use of strategies” (see page).

The content of the material used to model thinking aloud is also important for teachers to consider. The use of nonfiction provides an excellent point for middle school teachers to practice using think-alouds. First, many middle schoolers are already familiar with fiction story elements and find comprehension easier with this genre, whereas nonfiction text is less familiar, provides more of a challenge, and makes up the bulk of their academic reading. Further, using nonfiction text with middle school readers satisfies their curiosity, expands their vocabulary, builds content knowledge, creates background knowledge to supplement and support the material in textbooks, and familiarizes readers with expository text structures commonly found in technical manuals, textbooks, and standardized tests.

Understanding How Think-Aloud Strategies Can Be Used to Advance Middle School Readers’ Achievements

Traditionally, from early childhood throughout middle childhood, exposure to fiction texts tends to increase, whereas knowledge about nonfiction text structures takes place in content areas. Paris and colleagues (e.g., Myers & Paris, 1978; Paris & Jacobs, 1984) found that knowledge about the purpose of reading and knowledge about the information provided by conventional features of text is related to both and reading comprehension. Older readers and better comprehenders are more successful at explaining information gained in the introduction and ending of a text. Children with comprehension impairments struggle with explaining story structures of nonfiction text.

Equally important is the effect of interestingness of nonfiction text on comprehensibility (Chambliss, 2000). When nonfiction texts are optimally informative, well structured, coherent, highlight the structure of the text, reveal the author’s voice, and provide vivid details that can be “pictured,” students become more eager to read. When these features are missing, they too often judge nonfictional texts to be uninteresting.

Another variable in comprehensibility is the accuracy of clarity of textual features, such as subheadings, graphics, and charts. Donovan and Smolkin (2002a, 2002b) recommended an evaluation of content and the accuracy of information. Books with misinformation reinforce children’s misconceptions and impair accurate comprehension. Moreover, when the visual features (e.g., the size, the shape, the cover, appearance of the pages, and the font) are reader friendly, they serve the important comprehension function of helping readers link information-containing portions of the text together.

The organization of nonfiction text also impacts reading comprehension. Poorly written textbooks play a role in the comprehension difficulties of poor readers (Dickson, Simmons, & Kameenui, 2002). Well-presented physical text facilitates reading comprehension, as does student awareness of these text structures. Thus, instruction in the physical presentation of nonfiction text and the structure of the text should be explicit.

Motivation and the Adolescent Reader

Motivation is a crucial factor influencing comprehension and metacognition (Baker, 2002). Struggling readers often have poor comprehension and lack the awareness of fix-up strategies to repair their own comprehension. Poor comprehension, in turn, can decrease a student’s motivation to read. Cast in a positive light, readers who successfully comprehend text are more likely to be engaged readers and are more likely to become lifelong readers and learners (M. F. Graves, Juel, & B. B. Graves, 2001).

It is important to make a distinction between engagement and motivation. P. Cunningham and J. Cunningham (2001) described engagement as learners working in a motivated way—“that is, they employ whatever skills and strategies they have with effort, persistence, and an expectation of success” (see page). Defined in this manner, motivation is part of engaged reading. Guthrie et al. (1996) defined engaged readers as readers who are strategic, motivated, and intentional. Further, engaged readers make choices about what strategies they will use. A salient conclusion revolves around these researchers’ observation of strategic reading as linked to engaged reading. Guthrie and Wigfield (2000) proposed that “engaged readers in the classroom or elsewhere coordinate their strategies and knowledge (cognition) within a community of literacy (social) in order to fulfill their personal goals, desires, and intentions (motivation)” (see page). Guthrie et al. (1996) found that students who increased in intrinsic motivation also increased in reading strategy use.

Unfortunately, engaged reading, and the motivation to read, often decreases as children move into middle and secondary school (Guthrie & Wigfield, 2000). Initial research suggests that nonfiction, informational tasks can be particularly motivating for middle school students (Ivey & Broaddus, 2001; Moss, 2003), especially when students’ comprehension is supported through teacher instruction and modeling.

How do think-alouds impact student motivation? First, teacher think-alouds can be enjoyable for students. Ivey and Broaddus (2001) surveyed 1,765 middle schoolers, following up with interviews in those settings students designated as engaging. Students consistently reported that they enjoyed and were motivated by listening to the teacher reading and thinking aloud, and that such interaction provided “scaffolds to understanding.” Second, teacher think-alouds help students understand what to focus on in particular types of text. Hennings (1993) described using think-alouds with nonfiction history texts, modeling for students what is important to pay attention to when reading. Through strategy instruction in how to handle specific text structures, students are able to attend to the important information and not become lost and disengaged by focusing on confusing details. Third, the read-aloud/think-aloud process can allow struggling readers to participate in common classroom experience and thereby become more engaged (Ivey, 2002).

The Role of Instruction Using Nonfiction Text With Middle School Readers

According to Block (2002), using nonfiction text requires a change in instructional strategies. Using nonfiction text helps increase students’ knowledge of a variety of disciplines, specifically textual features and genre-relevant writing patterns, while at the same time providing opportunities to increase comprehension. Without the tools or knowledge of how to go about navigating nonfiction text, struggling readers’ frustrations only increase. Teachers should evaluate readability of nonfiction text to ensure comprehension effectiveness. Nonfiction text traditionally is written using vocabulary that is more difficult.

As proof in point, Afflerbach and VanSledright (2001) investigated 7 fifth graders who first read chapters in innovative history textbooks and then excerpts from a traditional history textbook in order to gain a better understanding of whether or not a historical stance and position was assumed during verbalization. After individual training sessions on think-aloud methodology, students provided think-alouds. Reports were analyzed to determine the challenges faced and reading strategies used by students. Findings indicated that students responded to different challenges posed by history texts with different strategies that led to meaning construction.

Coté, Goldman, and Saul (1998) investigated how fourth- and sixth-grade students construct mental representations and how these processing activities during reading relate to what they understand and remember. In addition, they investigated differences when students were asked to think-aloud, or when asked to read silently when reading easier and harder informational passages. The findings indicated that the types of processing observed using informational texts were similar to those observed using narrative texts but were different in the relevant proportions of processing activities. For informational text, more emphasis on monitoring positive instances of comprehension and identification of problems occurred than during narrative text. With regard to children’s processing and construction of mental representations, for older readers, thinking aloud improved the quality of their recall performance and encouraged active processing strategies that resulted in the integration of prior knowledge and the formation of more coherent representations.

Israel (2002) analyzed metacognitive strategies of above average, average, and weaker middle school readers using nonfiction, fiction, and poetry. Israel documented that best readers make strategic decisions, employ numerous reading strategies, and adapt their thinking to an author’s intention within the constraints of a particular genre and reading objective. Before all readers can become good readers who are opport...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• About the Editors
• About the Contributors
• I Metacognition and Theory
• II Metacognition and Assessment
• III Metacognition and Literacy Instruction
• IV Metacognition and Professional Development
• Final Reflections