Technology of the Ancient Near East

From the Neolithic to the Early Roman Period

Jill L. Baker

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2018
• ISBN:
  9781351188098
• Edition: 1
• Topic: History
• Subtopic: Ancient History
• Index: History

Peoples of the distant past lived comfortably in cities that boasted well-conceived urban planning, monumental architecture, running water, artistic expression, knowledge of mathematics and medicine, and more. Without the benefits of modern technology, they enjoyed all the accoutrements of modern civilization.

Technology of the Ancient Near East brings together in a single volume what is known about the technology behind these acheivements, based on the archaeological, textual, historic, and scientific data drawn from a wide range of sources, focusing on subjects such as warfare, construction, metallurgy, ceramics and glass, water management, and time keeping. These technologies are discussed within the cultural, historic, and socio-economic contexts within which they were invented and the book emphasises these as the foundation upon which modern technology is based. In so doing, this study elucidates the ingenuity of ancient minds, offering an invaluable introduction for students of ancient technology and science.

1

INTRODUCTION

When considering the notion of technology what immediately comes to mind? What is technology, when did it begin, and why? Why study ancient technology? This chapter will discuss those questions and establish the parameters within which this study will operate. It will offer our working definition of technology, methodological approach, define geographic and chronologic parameters, consider technology and society, and review some of the resources that evidence technology in ancient societies.

When considering the concept of technology, what comes to mind? Most people living in the twenty-first century immediately think of computers, mobile phones, tablets, smart watches, voice-interaction apps, global positioning system (GPS) devices, 3D printers, and other types of high-tech equipment. Some might also include machines such as power tools, kitchen appliances, automobiles, airplanes, and bulldozers under the umbrella of technology. Equating the notion of technology with electronic gadgets and machines has become commonplace because they have become so permanently integrated into the fabric of our lives and our very being. Today, some people have never known life without computer technology, and many people have never known what it’s like to live without basic electronic machines such as electric stoves, dishwashers, washing machines, clothes dryers, and fans.

For many, it seems impossible to imagine a productive or comfortable life without these conveniences, yet in the distant past, people lived comfortably in cities that boasted monumental architecture, running water, access to doctors and medicine, knowledge of mathematics and astronomical events, and artistic expression in the form of sculpture, music, and theater. They enjoyed all the accoutrements of modern civilization without the aid of modern technology.

The purpose of this work is to explore some of the technologies employed by the peoples of the ancient Near East. In doing so, we will consider the unique function and contribution of these technologies to the construction of civilization, as well as their evolution and continued use in modern civilization. To achieve this goal, this study will specifically offer a survey of technologies utilized in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Canaan, and Anatolia from the Neolithic to the early Roman period (ca. 8500 BCE–132 CE). This is not meant to be an exhaustive survey, but rather an examination of selected technologies that contributed to the creation, development, and perpetuation of these ancient civilizations. Narrowing the chronological and geographic range for the purpose of this study is deliberate.

The primary foci of this work will be on earlier pre-Hellenistic and Roman periods; however, important technologies that migrated to the Near East from Greece and Rome will be discussed, such as aqueducts and Roman cement. An exhaustive study of the technologies of the Hellenistic and Roman periods in the Near East is best left to a dedicated volume. To be sure, the technologies brought to the Near East by the Greeks and Romans were impactful; however, the use and complexities of Graeco-Roman technology in the Near East deserve to be addressed in a separate volume. Additionally, numerous Classical scholars have expertly and meticulously discussed Greek and Roman technology (Humphrey et al. 2006; Oleson 2008; Landels 2000). To do so here would be redundant, and would significantly add to the length of this volume.

This study is intended to be a kind of first resource for those who wish to learn about the technologies of the ancient Near East but who will go beyond this work. It is meant to begin a discussion and inspire students of all fields and generations—professional and proletarian—to dive deeper into the topics presented here. It will present a broad picture of technologies used over a wide region by summarizing in one volume the ancient resources, excavation reports, focused studies, research, and recent discoveries that have formed an important foundation for our understanding of ancient technology. While these works provide important data, they are so specific that they are rarely integrated into broader studies. Here, these foundational works will be illuminated in an attempt to underscore the breadth and interconnection of ancient technological knowledge.

Finally, it is my hope that the reader will be inspired by the ingenuity, research, problem-solving ability, tenacity, and curiosity of these ancient peoples to achieve organized and sophisticated civilizations without the aid of electricity, combustion engines, electronic gadgets or computers. There is room in our knowledge bank to learn from the technologies designed, built, and used by these ancient peoples, and to consider how those technologies can be applied in our world today. Ancient systems were not necessarily simplistic or irrelevant when compared to modern ones. With an open mind, one can apply ancient technologies in new and innovative ways or be inspired to create entirely new approaches or systems that may prove useful in resolving present and future problems.

While teaching a course entitled Ancient Technology, it became clear that numerous academic resources discuss technology beginning in the eighth/seventh century BCE onward and focus mainly on the achievements of the Greeks and Romans. Certainly, this was a vibrant period of scientific advancement and engineering marvels, and many of the philosophic, scientific, and engineering concepts that we use today were developed or advanced during that time. Philosophers such as Thales of Miletus (ca. 624–546 BCE), Anaximander of Miletus (ca. 610–546 BCE), and Pythagoras of Samos (ca. 570–495 BCE) advanced the basic tenets of mathematics, physics, science, and medicine. There were notable inventors, such as Archimedes of Syracuse (ca. 287–212 BCE), who invented (among other things) a screw consisting of an evenly measured spiral that wound around a central cylindrical shaft, and Heron of Alexandria (ca. 10–70 CE), who developed a wind-powered organ, a force pump, a steam engine called an aeolipile, and temple doors that opened and closed automatically. These machines are antecedents to many of our own devices, and deserve recognition as such. However, many achievements of the Greeks and Romans were made possible by an extensive and solid foundation of scientific and mechanical knowledge already theorized and applied in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Canaan long before the Greek or Roman periods. The experience, knowledge, and research of Near Eastern peoples, together with that gained from China and India, provided the foundation upon which the early Greek philosophers and scientists made their discoveries and developed their innovative technology that propelled humankind toward automation and mechanization.

Some modern academic resources acknowledge the technological and scientific achievements of the peoples of the ancient Near East; however, few of these achievements have been explored in detail or synthesized into one volume. While it is recognized that a thorough discussion of Bronze and Iron Age technology is necessary and worthwhile, it is understood that such a discussion would require a separate study (Oleson 2008:3). After cobbling together outdated references and recent archaeological reports and articles for my class, it became clear that enough material exists to compile a handbook dedicated to an integrated study of the technology of the ancient Near East. This work will focus mainly on the Mesopotamians, Egyptians, Canaanites, and Israelites and some of the technologies they employed to create their magnificent urban centers and cultures.

One might pose the question, why study ancient technology? After all, humankind and technology have progressed significantly since the period from 8500 BCE to 132 CE in the ancient Near East. What can possibly be learned from scientists, engineers, architects, and doctors who lived millennia ago? A stock response from an archaeologist’s point of view is that understanding our past can help us make informed decisions regarding the present and future. However, humankind rarely learns from the past, and if it does, that knowledge is rarely incorporated into the decision-making process to solve present-day problems. Instead, humankind often repeats the same mistakes and poor decisions without analyzing the consequences that can be gleaned from history. Nevertheless, much can be learned from the successes and failures of the past and applied to the present and future.

Archaeology, anthropology, history, and culture elucidate the resumé of humanity. When going to a job interview, one presents a potential employer with a resumé or CV summarizing the experiences and abilities that make one suitable for the position. Similarly, humankind’s technological resumé establishes the foundation and skill set upon which to move forward. It shows how people adapted to their natural surroundings, including micro and macroclimate changes, and developed new technologies and strategies to cope with and manage those changes. It is important to recognize the contributions and diligent work of the scientists, physicists, medical practitioners, mariners, engineers, metallurgists, and artists who lived before us; to understand how new technologies interacted with and advanced society; and to ask whether ancient principles can be applied to our present and future world.

Additionally, significant technological, scientific, and industrial advancement stagnated and much knowledge was lost in the Near East and Europe during the Middle Ages due to the fall of the Roman Empire, movement of peoples, sociopolitical reorganization, scholasticism, and the controlling grip of the Christian Church in influencing every aspect of society and culture. Studying ancient technology helps to regain lost knowledge and incorporate some of it into the present. As we move forward locally, nationally, and globally, ancient lessons learned can inform present and future decisions to provide a better standard of living and quality of life for people the world over.

Methodological approach

This work will approach technology from the practical standpoint of an ancient person with a task to perform, a problem to solve, a structure to build, or a goal to achieve. We will attempt to observe what the ancient people knew, when they knew it, how they knew it, and the ways in which they applied or did not apply their knowledge.

Let’s revisit the opening question: what is technology? The word technology is comprised of two Greek words: tekhnologia/tekhne, τέχνη, meaning art, skill, or craft, and logia, λογία, meaning subject of study or interest. Technology can be defined as “the practical application of knowledge especially in a particular area” (see www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/technology) and as “the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, especially in industry” (see https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/technology). Humphrey et al. (2006:xiv) describe technology as an “attempt by humans to control and master the natural environment, changing it into a more hospitable, if artificial one,” and as a “process by which humans accomplish change.” For the purpose of this work and the overall discussion, technology will be defined as the practical application of knowledge, scientific or otherwise, to resolve a problem, achieve a goal, satisfy curiosity, make life easier, or to facilitate change. With this working definition in mind, technology can encompass a wide range of strategies and systems, some of which may be less obvious and more passive than others, such as architectural design, artwork, military organization and tactics, judicial systems, and even religion, all of which were utilized by ancient peoples to realize their goals and to accomplish change. Though we may not be aware of it, we use these non-mechanical technologies for the same purposes today.

To facilitate this survey, previously published research will be synthesized and integrated to establish a foundation for these technologies. This work will be based on known studies as a way to assemble a wide variety and scope of resources into one volume. This work is not meant to be an exhaustive review of all technologies or previously published works on ancient technology in the Near East. Instead, the most ubiquitous, instrumental, and informative will be integrated into our discourse. For example, in his book Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries, Moorey (1999) discussed stone working, agriculture, metalworking, ceramic and glass crafts, and building methods and materials in Mesopotamia. In Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology, Nicholson and Shaw (2009) discussed topics such as materials used for building, tool making, textiles, leatherwork, and food technology in ancient Egypt. Scholars have discussed ancient warfare, including Yadin in The Art of Warfare in Biblical Lands in Light of Archaeological Discovery (Yadin 1963) and Hackett, Warfare in the Ancient World (Hackett 1989), both of which highlight the technologies used in warfare. And some scholars discuss textiles, such as Nosch, Koefoed, and Strand in Textile Production and Consumption in the Ancient Near East (Nosch et al. 2013) and Friend in Tell Taannek 1963–1968 III: The Artifacts, 2: The Loom Weights (Friend 1998). Each of these references provides valuable information; however, each focuses on specific aspects of the ancient world and related technologies, and does not necessarily integrate those technologies with the wider Near East. Henry Hodges integrates technologies from the Neolithic to the early Roman period in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Canaan in Technology in the Ancient World (Hodges 1992) a valuable work, but one that needs updating. Equally important are the manuals, handbooks, histories, and observations written by ancient engineers, physicists, scientists, mathematicians, astronomers, historians, and doctors. These essential works record the research and development of theories and knowledge established by the world’s earliest researchers. The work of people such as Mesopotamian astronomers, Imhotep, Thales of Miletus, Hesiod, Herodotus, Ctesibius, and Pliny the Elder, established the foundation upon which our principles of science, engineering, physics, mathematics, astronomy, etc. are built. Throughout this work, reference will be made to the ancient authors. The accompanying citations will provide the name of the ancient author, the title of their work, and the chapter and verse of the relevant text, followed by one or two modern references that provide easily accessible English translations of the cited passage. This is to encourage the reader to chase-down the ancient reference to get a sense of the ancient people’s knowledge, sense of humor, and understanding of the world around them.

This volume is meant to emphasize and build upon disparate works that discussed ancient technologies; to summarize the various technologies in use from the Neolithic to the early Roman period in Mesopotamia, Canaan, and Egypt; and to illustrate how, when combined, each study contributes to our understanding of the technology that supported the social, cultural, and economic complexities of the ancient world.

For the purpose of this work, it is necessary to establish some regional definitions. This work will focus on the ancient Near East. The broader terms ancient Near East or Levant will be used to refer to ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq, southwestern Iran, northeastern Syria), Anatolia (modern Turkey), Canaan (modern Israel, Jordan, Syria), and Phoenicia (modern Lebanon). Modern Israel will be referred to as such or in ancient terms such as Canaan, ancient Israel, or Palestine, as it was known in the Graeco-Roman periods. Use of these geographical terms is in no way meant to support or refute any current political or religious ideologies or associations.

Although the focus will be on the Near East and the Mediterranean basin, technological invention and innovation were not particular to this area and timeframe. Concurrently, there were remarkable achievements in technology, engineering, and medicine in India, China, Europe, and South America. Because humankind inhabited the whole of the earth, it is important to recognize concurrent uses of similar technologies and advances in other regions of the ancient world because the human experience is similar no matter the culture or location. So, throughout this work, reference will be made to other cultures in other regions of the globe that were developing and utilizing similar technologies contemporaneous to these developments in the ancient Near East.

Theoretical approach

What sparks technological discovery, invention, and innovation? What causes people to create a tool, device, or weapon? Before proceeding, these terms should first be defined.

Discovery is the act or process of finding, encountering, or gaining knowledge about something that already exists. For example, electricity exists in nature in the form of lightning, static electricity, and in creatures such as eels and fireflies (Lampyridae). Humans did not discover electricity; rather, we figured out how to harness, manipulate, and produce electricity based on its natural properties.

To invent is to originate, create, fabricate, or produce something as the result of one’s own ingenuity, research, experimentation, or imagination. For example, Hero of Alexandria (first century BCE) invented the aeolipile based on his knowledge of hydraulics and physics.

Innovation applies changes to something that already exists or has been established to develop it further or to adapt it to a different set of parameters. For example, the Greeks invented the gastraphetes, a crossbow, as a weapon to hurl projectiles. Based on the crossbow, the Romans later developed variations of catapults, which also hurled projectiles, but in different forms and for different purposes.

Scholars have long debated the impetus behind these actions. Were the driving forces for discovery, invention, and innovation based on need, competition, revolution, conflict, original thought, curiosity, or a combination of these? Humans are complex beings, and the technologies we have invented throughout the centuries have primarily been purposeful. Therefore, the development of technologies must be understood within the historic, cultural, social, economic, and religious contexts within which they were created and utilized. Some technologies were created during times of war to outsmart and/or respond to the enemy, such as the catapult. Others were meant to dazzle and mesmerize, such as Heron’s temp...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half-title Page
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Contents
• Figures
• Acknowledgements
• Maps
• Chronology of Mesopotamia, Egypt, Canaan, and Greece
• 1 Introduction
• 2 Early technologies
• 3 Stone
• 4 Wood
• 5 Metals
• 6 Bonding agents
• 7 Engineering, machines, power, and energy
• 8 Construction
• 9 Warfare
• 10 Textiles
• 11 Ceramic and glass technology
• 12 Water management and technology
• 13 Medicine
• 14 Daily life
• 15 Transportation
• 16 Timekeeping
• 17 Food as technology
• 18 Writing, arts, weights, measures, and currency
• 19 Summary and discussion
• Bibliography
• Index