Teaching Gymnastics

E. Mauldon

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2014
• ISBN:
  9781317901099
• Edition: 2
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Education General

This practical book is designed to help not only the specialist, but also the primary and middle school teacher, whose responsibility it is to provide gymnastic education. Opening chapters discuss the historical context of gymnastics and provide a discussion of the relevance of the subject within the curriculum. It will provide help in the essentials of organising each lesson, including general teaching points, teaching styles and strategies to employ and develop, material to use and the appropriate and creative use of apparatus.

CHAPTER 1

Historical Overview

The history of the development of what over the years has been variously termed educational gymnastics, modern educational gymnastics, basic movement, inventive movement, movement, movement education, movement training and so on, has yet to be written in detail. Indeed even its beginnings are obscure since it seems difficult to set a time when and a place where this type of gymnastics can be said to have become an identifiable form. However, there is little doubt that educational gymnastics evolved partly as a reaction against what was seen as the rigidity of Swedish and Austrian gymnastics and partly as a response to a changing educational climate in which notions such as “creativity” were becoming central. If the above two factors were instrumental in causing some physical educationists to reassess the nature and the place of gymnastics in education, then it was the work of the movement theorist Rudolf Laban (1879–1958) which enabled the protagonists of the new gymnastics to develop its theoretical framework.

Therefore, in the absence of a complete historical study of educational gymnastics, it would seem profitable to attempt to outline the main stages in its development in order to place the two editions of this book within a context. One immediate way in which this might be carried out would be by reference to all the major publications on educational gymnastics, however, in this chapter the source material is confined almost entirely to text books since the many articles in the various professional journals would require a more exhaustive study than the present overview permits. Nevertheless, reference to the major text books in chronological order does show, in a quite striking manner, the ways in which both the content of educational gymnastics and the methods of teaching it have developed and clarified over the years.

Webb (1967), in her work on the training of women teachers of physical education from 1800 to 1966, cites evidence, such as timetables and syllabuses, to show when the various colleges introduced educational gymnastics, for example, at I.M. Marsh College, Liverpool, the innovation occurred during the 1945–46 period. The Ministry of Education (now the Department of Education and Science) publications Moving and Growing and Planning the Programme (published in 1952 and 1953 respectively) exemplify the thinking of some leading physical educationists at this time. Both books are concerned with physical education in the primary school, of which gymnastics is seen as a part, and the influence of a child-centred, creative movement approach to the work is evident. However, although these publications were intended to replace the 1933 Syllabus of Physical Training for Schools and the new movement orientated basis for gymnastics is made explicit, the actual material of gymnastics is as yet relatively unstructured. Thus, while a qualitative movement approach is advocated, the lesson is planned as in Swedish gymnastics with the stress on developing mobility and strength by progressively working through parts of the body. An example given of a gymnastic activity is the mobilising of the arm and shoulder girdle through swinging actions that might be performed on a bar quickly or slowly, with twisting and in different directions.

The first text book on educational gymnastics was written by Morison (1956) and whereas in the Ministry of Education publications Lab an’s motion factors and elements are described but not acknowledged Morison both refers to and uses Laban’s movement principles to provide the framework for her gymnastic material. In this book the nature and content of gymnastics, particularly as distinct from modern educational dance, becomes established, as is the method of teaching and learning. The former is by a series of progressive challenges, with both action tasks and movement tasks described, and the latter by exploration and experiment with no pre-determined hierarchical skill structure. In the second of her two earlier books Morison (1960) retains the Laban basis but a thematic division of material becomes evident. The gymnastic themes which subsequent authors have used as the main method of structuring gymnastic material are all mentioned by Morison, some such as flight and balance, are dealt with in detail, others such as twisting and turning, symmetry and asymmetry are given less space. In these text books, therefore, Morison established the basis upon which educational gymnastics developed.

However, during this period of innovation educational gymnastics was not evolving along one clearly discernible line as instanced by Randall’s 1961 publication Basic Movement. A New Approach to Gymnastics. The appearance of the term “basic movement” reflects ideas current at this time, for while Randall uses it virtually as a synonym for gymnastics others consider it as a form of movement training not specifically gymnastic, but giving a movement experience which is both basic and relevant to other physical education activities. Randall bases her text on what she terms Laban’s “movement qualities”, nevertheless she takes issue with Morison’s interpretation of the flow factor as applied to gymnastics. Morison (1956) claims that gymnastics “produces very little truly flowing movement” but Randall argues that both free and bound flow are present in gymnastics and that flow “might be called continuity of movement.” Another area of dispute evident from the inception of educational gymnastics was the seemingly ever-widening gulf between the types of gymnastics advocated by the men’s and women’s specialist colleges of physical education. This is reflected in Randall’s assertion that “masculine and feminine gymastics have, to a great extent, essentially different aims and objectives.”

An example of the criticisms levelled at educational gymnastics in the mid-fifties and early sixties by an eminent physical educationist not involved with its development can be found in Munrow’s Pure and Applied Gymnastics. The first edition, published in 1955, was already questioning the nature of a gymnastic training which appeared to disregard mobility, strength and endurance. Randall (1961) attempted to counter some of Munrow’s points but by the time Munrow wrote his second edition in 1963, he had at his disposal the three publications of Morison (1956, 1960) and Randall (1961) and his criticisms of educational gymnastics therefore become much more specific. In particular he queried not only the claims made for the work but also the relation of the content of an educational gymnastic lesson to such claims.

Nevertheless, from the early sixties onwards the number of text books published on educational gymnastics showed a marked increase. The rapidly growing status of this form of gymnastics can be judged by the fact that the next public-action was by the then London County Council in 1962. Entitled Educational Gymnastics. A guide for Teachers, it was based on material used at the L.C.C.’s numerous in-service courses. The format follows that of Morison’s books, since Laban’s motion factors are explained briefly, and the teaching material is arranged under the headings of themes. An interesting feature is that the lesson plan still shows the influence of more formal work for it is advocated that teachers should divide the floorwork into tasks related to the whole body, to weight “supported on the arms” and to “leg work”.

The Bilbrough and Jones (1963) book, Physical Education in the Primary School, which covers a range of physical activities in the primary school, gives a physical education context to educational gymnastics and this, together with that of Cameron and Pleasance (1963) which has a title variation of School Gymnastics, are typical examples of the stage of development reached in educational gymnastics by this time. The material is now clearly defined, though relatively little detail is given, but there are many suggestions and ideas for the teacher to incorporate into lessons. The manner of teaching outlined is one where the open-ended problem solving situation is interspersed with more specific challenges in which the objective is to produce a recognisable skill or to give a particular movement experience.

In 1965 no less than four books on educational gymnastics were published. Both the I.L.E.A. (formerly the L.C.C.) and the Cameron and Pleasance books appeared in second editions, an indication of a continuing demand, and the latter in its revised form contained an appendix in which thirteen lesson themes were set out in response to requests from teachers. Pallett’s (1965) Modern Educational Gymnastics uses the term preferred by many teachers since it acknowledges the relationship between educational gymnastics and modern educational dance and their common source in the work of Laban. It is also interesting in that it claims to help teachers trained in Ling’s Swedish Gymnastics to adapt to the newer thematically structured educational gymnastics. The final chapter on “Poise” is significant too, since the responsibility of the physical education teacher for undertaking remedial work in the gymnastic lesson had by this time been discarded by most advocates of educational gymnastics.

The first edition of Teaching Gymnastics was also published in 1965. To the authors it seemed that despite the growing number of publications it was necessary to help teachers to distinguish between the preparation and presentation of gymnastic material, hence the format of dividing each theme into material, teaching and apparatus. In addition to the chapters devoted to specific themes, other chapters such as “Lesson Plan and Organisation”, “Movement Observation” and “Syllabus and Progressions” were included in order to provide teachers with an appropriate pedagogical framework. In retrospect it is interesting to refer to some of the points made in the first edition of Teaching Gymnastics since much that was predicted in 1965 has become fact in the late 1970s. For example, the suggestions that when the gymnastic potential of Junior school children is realised it would be possible for them to tackle the so-called “advanced” themes and that educational gymnastics in the middle of the Secondary school should become an optional activity are now both generally accepted. Another feature of Teaching Gymnastics was the explicit statement of teaching aims, subsequently much quoted, and in the light of recent developments the twin aims of skill and understanding are of significance.

In 1966 the I.L.E.A. published a further teaching guide, Movement Education for Infants in which the Laban based thematic gymnastic material is given under “Movement Training” and “Agility” as part of a wider movement education. In the following year Cope’s Discovery Methods in Physical Education appeared, reflecting new approaches to learning, and in 1969 four more gymnastic text books were published each with its particular style and emphasis.

Of these four Morison’s A Movement Approach to Educational Gymnastics is probably the most important. This book, published thirteen years after her first statements on the subject, constitutes a detailed and thoroughly worked out exposition on educational gymnastics. The material of her first two books is completely revised and much that is new added. However, the main feature of this book and the one that distinguishes it from all other text books on educational gymnastics is the style in which it is written. The descriptive language and the use of words that recapture the kinesthetic experience of gymnastics imbue the text with a characteristic flavour which probably stems from Morison’s own concern and emphasis for the qualitative elements of skill.

Of the three other 1969 publications Allen’s book, although orthodox in its explanation of Laban’s theories as applied to gymnastics and based on the now common thematic structure, was written primarily for the New Zealand market, for by this time educational gymnastics, under various titles, was being taught in Australia, Canada and other countries. Buckland’s book, simply entitled Gymnastics, is part of the “Activity in the Primary School” series and whereas earlier text books for this age group tended to cover the whole spectrum of physical education with educational gymnastics as an integral part, Buckland writes solely on gymnastics, perhaps an indication of the growing awareness of the particular relevance of this activity for Primary/Middle school children. The Cameron and Cameron publication Education in Movement in the Infant School begins with the familiar analysis of movement based on Laban’s work and is followed by a chapter enumerating the various gymnastic themes. However, as with many other authors, only three of Laban’s motion factors, that is time, weight and space are referred to for it appears that the flow factor is the one aspect with which advocates of educational gymnastics have had difficulty in relation to the development of themes. This problem can be traced back through the text book literature to Randall’s (1961) criticism of Morison’s (1956) interpretation of flow as applied to gymnastics.

Anderson’s Inventive Movement published in 1970 is yet another text book written for Primary school teachers, and its title reflects the attitudes of some physical educationists who wish to distinguish between the notions of inventiveness and creativity and therefore prefer the terms inventive movement and creative movement to those of educational gymnastics and modern educational dance.

In 1972 there were two government publications on physical education which included sections on gymnastics. Movement: Physical Education in the Primary Years was published by the D.E.S. and is important insofar as it is the successor to Moving and Growing (1952) and Planning the Programme (1953). Its format is similar to the earlier publications, that is, a first part concerned with movement generally and a second part devoted to particular physical education activities, but the contents are more specific probably reflecting the development of the work during the intervening years. The influence of Laban is acknowledged and a brief summary of the main tenets of his theories given. The section on gymnastics (the term is not qualified by “educational”) is presented under headings which approximate to the themes of the standard texts, along with numerous action photographs. The book is descriptive rather than prescriptive and the intention is to aid non-specialist teachers with an emphasis on “the application of general education principles and an understanding of movement in the physical education programme.” The other 1972 publication is by the Scottish Education Department, titled Physical Education in Secondary Schools. Curriculum Paper 12. In some respects it is complementary to the D.E.S. publication since it focusses upon Secondary schools and is written in the form of a summary of the deliberations of a working party together with that group’s recommendations; the overall impression is again one in which teachers are encouraged to select and pursue certain curriculum material and teaching strategies rather than being given set syllabuses.

Official statements apart, however, publication of text books on educational gymnastics has continued in the 1970s at a steady rate. Holbrook’s (1973) Gymnastics follows the trend of being written specifically for the teacher of the five to eleven age group, is Laban based and thematically structured. Brigg’s (1974) Movement Education is reminiscent of Randall’s (1961) book, for not only is the term “basic movement” used but also a chapter entitled “Basic Movement into Educational Gymnastics” is included. The section on gymnastics is set out in the form of a series of progressive lessons based on thematically akin material. Two other aspects are worth noting, firstly, the gymnastics glossary in which many terms associated with more formal gymnastic systems appear, such as screw vault and longfly, and secondly, the suggestions for new apparatus such as “body bouncers” and “tiger stools”, ideas again similar to those of Randall’s “life belt” and “split horse with swivel pommels”.

Williams’ (1974) Themes for Educational Gymnastics has an explicit thematic structure with an implicit Laban influence. The book is specifically orientated towards the student teacher and the young teacher and therefore concentrates on providing reference material within a given gymnastic and educational framework. The brief but nevertheless significant section (developed more fully in a later paper, 1978) on “concept of self”, with the sub concepts of “body image”, “body concept” and “body schema” indicates how the “body awareness” notion of the 1940s and 1950s, always very generalised and never rigorously examined, is being considered anew with research underlining its relevance and importance to a system of gymnastics which claims a place in the school curriculum.

It is pertinent at this point in the tracing of the development of educational gymnastics to refer to a paper by Lewis (1978). This departure from what is otherwise an historical overview of text books is justified on the grounds that Lewis’ paper pinpoints two crucial areas in educational gymnastics, the first, that of body concept, continues the discussion initiated by Williams and the second, that of gymnastic themes, departs from Williams and most other authors in the area. Lewis suggests that a “workable body concept” is that of “body integrity” and develops her argument into a proposal that educational gymnastics offers one of the richest ranges of bodily experiences to children. It would seem, therefore, that in the future this justificatory aspect of educational gymnastics will be one in which much interest will be shown and multi-disciplinary research undertaken. In the second part of her paper Lewis criticises what she sees as the stultifying effect on gymnastic work of adherence to a strict thematic approach. This possibility was anticipated by Morison who advocated “composite themes” but Lewis asserts that Morison’s notion is “rarely put into action”. Therefore, Lewis offers an alternative structure to what she terms “traditional themes” in the form of “action phrases”. An action phrase such as “rise, spread and turn” would be adopted as the topic for a gymnastic lesson rather than a theme, since it is claimed that, unlike the latter, an action phrase contains several movement aspects and it could therefore be carried through the lesson in floor, partner and apparatus work without the class becoming bored and the gymnastic actions stereotyped. Lewis’s criticism of the thematic approach may be true per se; it may be, however, that what is at issue stems more from unimaginative teaching than the manner in which the gymnastic material is organised. Perhaps this might also become a topic for future debate.

The publication of Movement in Practice by Learmouth and Whitaker (1976) is particularly interesting when ...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• Table of Contents
• 1. Historical overview
• 2. Gymnastics in the curriculum
• 3. Lesson planning and organisation
• 4. Movement observation
• 5. Elementary body management
• 6. Intermediate body management
• 7. Control of body weight, tension and energy
• 8. The use of space
• 9. Changes of speed
• 10. Continuity of movement in action
• 11. Partner work
• 12. Advanced body management
• 13. Gaining, maintaining and terminating balance
• 14. The body in flight
• 15. Group work
• 16. Scheme of work
• Bibliography
• Index