Introduction to Educational Gerontology

Ronald H. Sherron, D. Barry Lumsden

• Publisher: Taylor & Francis
• Year: 2013
• ISBN:
  9781317770718
• Edition: 3
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: Mental Health in Psychology
• Index: Psychology

Educational gerontology is the study of the changes in the learning process caused by old age.

This new edition provides an update of developments in this field of research. The volume probes topics such as implications for education for the aging, reminiscence, methods of teaching, social exchange and equal opportunity.

1

A HISTORY OF THE EDUCATION OF OLDER LEARNERS

DAVID A. PETERSON

University of Southern California

EDUCATION TODAY

Older people have participated in instructional activities for as long as educational programs have existed. Historically, education was directed primarily toward adults, and participants were individuals with available time and interest. Older people were part of this group and were involved as both learners and teachers in the discussions. Education, then, is not foreign to older people, but only recently in the United States have conscious attempts been made to recruit older participants and to design educational experiences that are exclusively for people in this age group.

Education is a widely used word, and its general meaning is understood by all. Unfortunately, its widespread use has diluted its clarity and the word has taken on inappropriate and indistinct meanings. Here education is used to mean planned learning that occurs apart from maturation and that is seriously undertaken. Education is different from learning. Although both may result in changed knowledge or behavior, education is distinct in that the change is identified beforehand by the teacher or the student or by both. Unlike learning, which can occur in an unplanned, spontaneous, serendipitous manner, education is a consciously designed program. It usually involves at least four components: a plan of what is to be learned (curriculum), a design of how the learning will take place (methodology), a leader who knows the plan and method (teacher), and a goal or end that is desired (objective). The consciousness of purpose is the characteristic that distinguishes education from incidental learning and forces the educator to carefully consider alternative approaches to the instructional endeavor.

Another characteristic of education is that it is an important, serious, and difficult endeavor (Moody, 1976). Lasting and meaningful change generally does not occur without effort; education is a lengthy and continuing program of self-improvement, and it requires consistent and conscientious application of the student’s emotional and intellectual faculties toward the understanding and integration of new knowledge, skills, concepts, and behaviors. For this serious learning to occur, the student must implicitly accept the fact that his or her state of functioning in a particular area is less effective or efficient than desired or possible. This awareness aids in opening the student to new understanding and enables real learning to occur.

Education can employ multiple approaches, but the desired outcomes generally improve awareness, understanding, skill, or behavior in an area where a weakness has been identified. Whether the learning is directed toward acquiring a new skill, continuing a lifelong interest, or developing one’s psychological and social relationships, education offers a means for better comprehending the complexity of life and relating oneself more adequately to that complexity. Much that passes for education does not meet these criteria. There are many occasions when programs that are more correctly described as recreation, diversion, or pacification are presented under the title of education. They may play a very helpful role in the lives of some individuals, but they need to be separated from an attempt to understand and to know, and to do that takes effort, time, and direction.

In contemporary America the population is realizing more clearly the need for this type of intellectual growth as the rapidity of social change, the complexity of urban life, and the developmental changes of the individual force more and more adults to seek assistance. The availability of increasing amounts of leisure time and greater financial resources have allowed students of all ages to enroll in a variety of educational settings, leading to what has been called “a learning society.” This view that learning and education must continue across the life span is becoming more widely accepted. As community colleges, voluntary agencies, membership organizations, business and industry, proprietary schools, the public school systems, and government programs encourage the acquisition of new knowledge and skills, individuals find themselves increasingly engaged in education regardless of their age.

Older adults have not been the first clientele of these developing programs, but they are becoming increasingly visible in educational settings. Programs designed especially for them are growing in number, and as the older population expands, increasing enrollments are resulting. The learning society, however, includes not only those individuals who are enrolled in formal education activities, but also people who are cultivating their personal growth and development by pursuing their interests and solving their problems through conscious learning. Older people, as one portion of this total audience, continue their involvement and may be expected to become far more numerous participants in continuing education in the years ahead.

In this chapter I outline the developmental stages of education for older people. Although I refer to specific programs, it is not my intent to mention all or even most of the numerous educational activities currently under way. Rather, I attempt to provide some understanding of the antecedents of instructional programs for older adults, to indicate some of the philosophical positions that have been taken, to show their relation to the larger field of adult education, to describe a few of the key events of the developing field, to suggest some implications and current trends, and to speculate briefly on the future developments that may occur in this dynamic and important field.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATIONAL GERONTOLOGY

Educational gerontology refers to the study and practice of instructional endeavors for and about the aged and aging. This definition has been used previously (Peterson, 1976), indicating an attempt to integrate the institutions and processes of education with the knowledge of human aging and the needs of older people. As an area of practice, its purpose is to prevent premature decline, to facilitate meaningful roles, and to encourage psychological growth; as an area of knowledge, its focus is on the intellectual changes that occur throughout later life, the instructional adaptations required for older students, and the motivational factors that determine educational participation or nonparticipation. Educational gerontology, then, is an attempt to apply what is currently known about aging and education in order to extend the healthy and productive years and improve the quality of life for older people.

Educational gerontology can be both instrumental and expressive, both formal and informal, both for older people and about them, both a study and a practice, both remedial and preventive—but it is designed as a positive approach to helping people better understand and assist themselves. It is a “positive domain” (Mc-Clusky, 1971) in which the potential of the individual is accepted and developed in order to ensure continuing growth throughout the life span. Educational gerontology includes three major areas: instruction for older people; instruction for general and specific audiences about older people; and instruction for people who will work with older people, such as professionals or practitioners employed in the agencies and institutions that plan for and serve the older client. This chapter deals only with the first of these three categories: instruction for older people. Consequently, it excludes major portions of the field of educational gerontology but emphasizes the area that is currently so vital and expansive that educational institutions and community programs are rapidly instituting relevant activities.

Florio (n.d.) has suggested that there are three main categories of education for older people. These categories, which are based primarily on the emphasis of the instructional offerings and the manner in which they are designed, are as follows. First, programs in which special privileges for seniors are provided. These are regular course offerings of an organization or institution, but they are provided at a reduced cost or without fee to older people. Second, existing programs that include a few courses adapted or modified to fit the special interests of older adults. These offerings may be designed primarily for the older participant, or they may be the typical course with a new title or time assignment intended to attract a few more older students. And third, programs that have been designed, packaged, and offered especially and often exclusively for older people. Frequently, they exist apart from other offerings of the institution and are presented in a manner and at a time most appropriate for older people.

Values and Purposes of Education for Older Learners

Because educational programs for older people are offered through a variety of institutional settings, it is not surprising that there are multiple purposes and that the results lead to quite diverse outcomes. Education may be preparation for a new task such as a job, volunteer assignment, or changing role in the family. It may be directed toward psychological growth whereby the individual attempts to explore innate capabilities. Education may be a primary mechanism used to prevent the physical, psychological, and social decline of the individual. Likewise, it may be used to evaluate lifelong experience and provide insights regarding the importance and meaning of that experience. It may be the opportunity to discover meaning in the individual’s knowledge and experience and translate that to a higher level of abstraction and understanding.

Moody (1976) has theorized that human service professionals and educators make one of four general presuppositions about education and older people. These basic attitudinal positions provide an understanding of, and a means of analyzing, contemporary programs in education for older people.

1. Rejection People who take this position perceive older people as being limited in economic value and as representing the antithesis of what society values—productivity, power, beauty, and youth. Essentially, older people are seen as expendable in a technological society. An attempt is made to isolate them on the grounds that they have little value or meaning in modern America. This attitude invalidates all rationale for educational concern or service. Because older people are seen as worthless to society, it becomes inappropriate to expend economic resources to educate them. Obviously this view would be rejected by most people in the field of gerontology today.

2. The Provision of Social Services Based on the belief that the problems of older people must be ameliorated by changes in public policy, this orientation leads to the implementation of transfer payments or social programs provided by professionals, generally at government expense. The projects are based on contemporary society’s liberalism and the belief in a welfare state in which social justice and equality are highly valued. Too often the emphasis is placed on attacking the symptoms rather than correcting the causes of the social problems faced by the elderly. Older people often passively receive services rather than honing the skills that will enable them to initiate their own, more effective programs. In addition, social service programs may lead to segregation of people of different ages and disengagement of these older individuals from their traditional roles and relationships. Programs may become mere activities rather than providing older individuals with opportunities that will ultimately enable them to improve their own lives. On an educational level, these instructional programs are often designed to keep people busy and to improve social relationships. This may provide meaningful activity for some individuals but often discourages many others.

The social services presupposition may be carried somewhat further if the educational programs are directed toward specific problems such as illiteracy and inability to handle the stresses of contemporary daily life. Birren and Woodruff (1973) suggested that this type of remedial education is extensively needed by contemporary older people and that a major contribution can be made through helping people overcome current problems. The value of education that will assist individuals in coping with contemporary situations was also indicated by McClusky (1971), who saw this as the first and most comprehensive category of educational need that should be addressed by instructional programs.

3. Participation People of this orientation contend that older people should continue to participate in the mainstream of American society because they have skills and abilities that may help overcome some of the societal problems facing the nation. In this view, education is directed at the normalization of roles for the elderly and the preservation of individual dignity. These are largely political values and can be realized through activity that is meaningful to the individual and to society. Educational programs based on this position encourage and facilitate such activity by helping to increase societal participation, by preparing individuals for second careers, and by expanding volunteer roles for people who are outside the work force. Through meaningful participation, older people can improve the quality of life in the country generally while assisting themselves and their age-mates in adjusting to their changing circumstances.

One application of this participative strategy was emphasized by Frank (1955) in his description of education as a means of increasing the citizenship capabilities of older people. Such education can play a meaningful role in a democratic nation by preparing the large number of recent immigrants for successfully performing their political and citizenship roles. In addition to preventing the waste of human resources, involving older people in conducting the nation’s affairs provides excellent role models for younger people.

4. Self-actualization This category emphasizes psychological growth and spiritual concerns as major outcomes of educational programming. Moody suggested that there are unique possibilities in old age, which can be realized only through a combined psychological and spiritual quest for meaning and insight. Old age can be considered a symbol of closure—an attempt to determine the meaning of experiences and integrate understanding acquired through life. In this sense, disengagement from activity may be a positive goal if it leads to contemplation and resynthesis of the self. This type of psychological growth in later life has been emphasized elsewhere (Donahue, 1955; Erikson, 1980) and is perhaps the highest goal of instructional programs. It is difficult to describe and conceptualize instructional methodology or program content, however, because individuals may vary greatly in their interests, needs, and levels of insight.

Moody, along with many others, has made a compelling case for the value of education across the later adult years. That education for the elderly meets personal and social needs is apparent, and the positive effects of such education should provide strong support for utilizing human and financial resources in this manner. Education offers a major potential for expansion and contribution, although the diversity of possible outcomes, purposes, and methods leaves one somewhat bewildered as to how best to describe or understand this growing phenomenon.

Education for older people is a developing area of study and activity that is occurring within and between the fields of education and gerontology. Studies in a variety of disciplines and professions through numerous settings and institutions are providing support for the belief that education offers much to older people. Although the values of education for individuals in our society have long been recognized, only recently has this belief been implemented in relation to middle-aged and older individuals. We are now entering a time when this practice is becoming widespread. As this occurs, greater knowledge is needed to ensure that the quality of instruction continues to improve and that the most effective and efficient learning processes are used.

These developments are of interest to policy makers and agency heads, as well as the public, because they offer the hope of preventing some of the decline that often occurs in later life and the opportunity to assist older people in maximizing their potential. Success in these endeavors will have major significance for the continued employment of older people, for their integration in the fabric of society, and for the type of health and social services that must be provided in the future. We are only beginning to glimpse the significance of education for the aged, but the potential effect is truly great.

The Development of Adult Education in the United States

Education for older people developed primarily from the adult education movement of the United States. As old as the nation itself, this movement has its roots in the social, cultural, and political concerns of the 18th century. Our earliest leaders believed that American democracy rested on the educability of its citizens and that public decisions could be improved through widespread education. Thus, education became a citizen’s right, and discussion regarding it dealt not with whether the general public should be educated, but how this education could be most effectively provided.

Early adult education, then, had an underlying concern for the development of good citizenship; the capacity to read and write was cultivated so that the individual could participate in the decisions of the nation. This was often associated with a religious emphasis because the ability to read was closely tied to an understanding of the Bible and the desire to gain salvation. Thus, much of the religious education had a decidedly political and civic orientation, and much of the political discussion had close ties to Christianity, if not to a specific denomination. Political and religious leaders t...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Table of Contents
• Preface
• chapter 1 A HISTORY OF THE EDUCATION OF OLDER LEARNERS
• chapter 2 EDUCATION AND THE LIFE CYCLE: A PHILOSOPHY OF AGING
• chapter 3 REMINISCENCE AND LIFE REVIEW: THE POTENTIAL FOR EDUCATIONAL INTERVENTION
• chapter 4 THE COMMUNITY OF GENERATIONS: A GOAL AND A CONTEXT FOR THE EDUCATION OF PERSONS IN THE LATER YEARS
• chapter 5 INSTRUMENTAL AND EXPRESSIVE EDUCATION: FROM NEEDS TO GOALS ASSESSMENT FOR EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
• chapter 6 RELIGION AND AGING AND THE ROLE OF EDUCATION
• chapter 7 INSTRUCTING EXPERIENCED ADULT LEARNERS
• chapter 8 UNITING THE GENERATIONS
• chapter 9 EVALUATION OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS IN SOCIAL GERONTOLOGY
• chapter 10 CAREER EDUCATION FOR THE PREPARATION OF PRACTITIONERS IN GERONTOLOGY, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO ADULT EDUCATORS
• chapter 11 CREATIVE BEHAVIOR AND EDUCATION: AN AVENUE FOR LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT
• chapter 12 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION FOR OLDER LEARNERS
• chapter 13 MODELS OF COGNITIVE FUNCTIONING IN THE OLDER ADULT: RESEARCH NEEDS IN EDUCATIONAL GERONTOLOGY
• chapter 14 LEADERSHIP TRAINING FOR RETIREMENT EDUCATION
• chapter 15 A 21st CENTURY CHALLENGE TO HIGHER EDUCATION: INTEGRATING THE OLDER PERSON INTO ACADEMIA
• chapter 16 EDUCATIONAL GERONTOLOGY AND THE FUTURE
• Index