The Student's Guide to Studying Psychology

Thomas M Heffernan

• Publisher: Psychology Press
• Year: 2015
• ISBN:
  9781317909859
• Edition: 4
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: History & Theory in Psychology
• Index: Psychology

Studying a degree course in psychology, even if you've taken the subject before university, requires a whole range of new skills and knowledge. And the 4th edition of this best-selling guide is an invaluable companion. It can not only help you to get a good final degree, but will also support you in making informed choices towards either a career or further study.

Updated to include the latest developments in the field, the new edition provides practical and helpful guidance on everything a psychology student encounters throughout their degree, including:

• 
  
  

• Writing essays and research reports, including how to get your referencing right.

• 
  
  

• Guidelines for researching ethically using humans or animals

• 
  
  

• An overview of research methods and statistics, including qualitative methods

• 
  
  

• Tips on how to approach and pass your exams

• 
  
  

• Advice on becoming a graduate, including preparing your CV and making the most of your degree

Featuring advice to help you every step of the way, the book also includes a library of weblinks to provide further resources to support your studies. This is an essential book for any psychology student wishing to make the most of their degree course.

1 Introduction to psychology

DOI: 10.4324/9781315849430-1

This chapter defines psychology, considers the study of psychology as a scientific discipline, and introduces the reader to the major perspectives within psychology.

What is psychology?

To the layperson, the term “psychology” might mean something like “the study of people” or “the study of the mind”, both of which are correct but a litt le vague. A more formal definition of psychology would be the scientific study of human mental processes, motivations, and behaviour. Animal research is also conducted so that comparisons can be made between animal and human behaviour – from which many models of behaviour have been developed (Pinel, 2013). The origins of psychology have been much debated over the years. One school of thought is that psychology really only began when the first experimental study in psychology was carried out (e.g., Hermann Ebbinghaus’s experimental investigations into human memory in the late nineteenth century), whereas there are good arguments in support of the roots of psychological thought and inquiry dating back much further (see e.g., Eysenck, 2002).

Early influences include those of the Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle during the fourth and fifth centuries BC, as well as experiments into psychophysics (the study of the relationship between mental and physical processes) carried out in Germany in the early to mid-nineteenth century. Hermann von Helmholtz’s physiological research on colour vision in the nineteenth century has contributed much to physiological psychology. Charles Darwin’s work on the origin of species and the work by Francis Galton on the study of individual differences and intelligence (both developed in the nineteenth century) firmly established the importance of biology to the study of humankind. Sigmund Freud’s work on the psychoanalytic approach to the study of human thought and behaviour (particularly in the current realms of abnormal psychology) in the late nineteenth to early twentieth century, and the growth in behaviourism during the early to mid-part of the twentieth century, have both contributed to the development of psychology.

All of these influences, it could be argued, have made invaluable contributions to the scientific study of human mental processes, motivations, and behaviour – psychology. Amongst the other major influences of the twentieth century are Gestalt psychology and Humanism. Gestalt psychology has as its focus the direct description of human conscious experience, and was pioneered in the early part of the twentieth century by Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Kohler. Humanism focuses particularly on personal growth (self-actualisation), and was pioneered in the mid part of the twentieth century by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. Very recent influences include social constructionism, cross-cultural psychology, and feminist psychology (see Eysenck, 2002).

During its development, psychology has undergone a number of changes. One of these changes is a greater reliance on the scientific method. This means the use of scientific techniques, approaches, designs, and analyses, all of which allow the psychologist to study and interpret a range of human behaviour systematically, and predict or control it with some precision. The use of systematic study allows us to test long-held, often erroneous, beliefs about the nature of human beings. For example, during the latter half of the Middle Ages, abnormal behaviour was predominantly thought to be the result of possession by devils or evil spirits. Often, “treatments” involved torturous, exorcistic procedures such as flogging, starving, immersion in hot water, etc. (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2008). In current times, however, the recognition of psychological disturbances (and biological dysfunction) has led to more humane treatment of the mentally ill within society (see also Seligman, Walker, & Rosenhan, 2001).

Most psychologists might agree that all aspects of functioning should be considered in order to gain a fuller understanding of the human being. However, they will differ on what aspects they believe are of greatest importance. These differences reflect the variety of perspectives and methods adopted in psychology and the different lines of research being carried out by psychologists. The influences mentioned previously (e.g., philosophy, biology, physiology, the scientific method) are all evident in the modern-day perspectives within psychology. These major perspectives and methods include: psychoanalytic, biological, developmental, humanistic, behaviourist, cognitive, and social approaches to the study of human functioning. In practice, many psychologists do not adhere to just one perspective, but will take a somewhat eclectic approach.

Before considering some of the major perspectives and methods in psychology, it should be noted that, historically speaking, psychology stems from a variety of strands. The two major influences come from philosophy and the biological sciences, which has led to different “schools” of psychology being developed. In this sense a “school” refers to a group of individuals who hold common notions about the nature of human beings. These influences are still with us today in psychology and are represented on any undergraduate degree course in psychology, as well as having a significant influence on specialisms in psychology.

Further reading: For some good reviews on the history of psychology, see, for example, Hergenhahn and Henley (2013), Malim, Birch, and Wadeley (1996), and Watson and Evans (1991).

Perspectives and methods in psychology

Psychology is ultimately the study of the person. Since there are many factors that work to “shape” each of us (e.g., genetics, learning processes, social influences, etc.), it is no surprise that psychology is a multi-perspective subject. Thus, when studying psychology at pre-degree and degree level, a number of perspectives or approaches are considered. For example, psychology can be looked at from a biological perspective, or from a combined approach (e.g., the study of psychological and social factors – a psychosocial approach). On the first year of a psychology course there is a wide coverage of the different perspectives, theories, and methods, which have evolved within the discipline of psychology. The purpose of the rest of this chapter is to introduce you to the major topics encountered when studying psychology.

The psychoanalytic perspective

The psychoanalytic (also referred to as psychodynamic) approach is one of the oldest of the psychological perspectives. The onset of this approach can be traced as far back as 100 years ago when Sigmund Freud began his work. Indeed, Freud (1856–1939) is often referred to as the “father” of the psychoanalytic approach. According to this view, human behaviour is governed by impulses that lie buried in the unconscious part of the psyche (a Greek word meaning “soul”, currently used to refer to the “mind”). Freud believed that each of us experienced a series of psycho-sexual stages that would shape our adult personality. The behaviour we show to the world is like the tip of an iceberg, beneath which are the vast realms of the unconscious. Freud developed a number of techniques for studying the patients who came to him for treatment for a range of disorders (Hergenhahn & Henley, 2013; Smith, Nolen-Hoeksema, Fredrickson, & Loftus, 2003).

Freud maintained that one’s personality is made up of three parts – the id, the ego, and the superego. The id is thought to be the seat of all our basic, innate drives and impulses such as sexual and aggressive drives. The id, for Freud, was the most inaccessible and primitive part of the personality, from which emanated such strong impulses that they could govern our overt behaviour. The second part of one’s personality is the ego. According to Freud, this part of the personality acts to regulate the impulses emanating from the id and transforms them into a more socially acceptable form. The ego, therefore, acts to mediate between the drives of the id and the constraints of the outside world. The id operates on a “pleasure principle” because it seeks immediate gratification of the drives and impulses emanating from it. The ego operates on a “reality principle” because it transforms the basic drives of the id into a socially acceptable form. The final part of the personality is the superego. The superego develops within the first 5 years of life and, according to Freud, is the result of the child’s incorporation of parental and social moral standards. The superego is seen as a “conscience mechanism”, which works with the ego in order to mediate between the strong impulses of the id and to conform to what the external world expects of us. In this way, the personality is thought to be in a constant state of struggle as these individual components interact to deal with basic, innate drives and outside forces. The system is said to be a dynamic one (see Freud, 1927/1974).

In addition to the notion of a three-part personality, Freud believed that child development was a strong indicator of the type of personality characteristics a person would show as an adult. According to this aspect of Freudian theory, a person progresses through five basic stages in their psychosexual development, each of which brings with it a potentially significant change in the person’s psychological make-up. (Psychosexual relates to psychological development that is strongly linked with sexual experiences.) The first three stages are experienced within the first 6 years of life; the final two occur between the age of 6 years and adulthood. A summary of these stages are: the oral stage (from birth to about 1 year); the anal stage (from 1 to 3 years of age); the phallic stage (with a major development between 5 and 6 years); the latency stage (from about 6 to 12 years of age); and the genital stage (from 12 years to adulthood).

Further reading: For further consideration of these development stages, see Alloy, Riskind, and Manos (2004), Gleitman, Fridlund, and Reisberg (2003), and Sternberg (2008).

Freud further maintained that if an individual progressed through these stages successfully then she or he would develop an adult personality that was, relatively speaking, problem-free (i.e., a person would not demonstrate maladaptive thought and behaviour patterns). However, if a particular stage was not “negotiated” successfully, then that person would develop what Freud referred to as a fixation. A fixation has been likened to having personality characteristics that are “frozen” in time, resulting in the manifestation of immature thinking and behaviour dependent on where the fixation lies. In some cases fixations can lead to various forms of neuroses (Alloy et al., 2004). So think carefully, if you are the type of person who is a chain-smoker, who likes chattering constantly, or eats excessively, because, according to Freudian theory, you might well be the victim of a fixation at the oral stage of your psycho-sexual development. (See also Eysenck, 2002; Smith et al., 2003.)

Freud’s writings have undoubtedly had a significant influence on theory and application in the field of psychology, as well as on other fields such as psychiatry. A number of post-Freudian theories and techniques have emerged, many of which owe a great debt to Freud’s work (see Gleitman et al., 2003; Hayes, 1994; Mischel, Shoda, & Ayduk, 2008; Smith et al., 2003). Freudian theory is, like all theories, open to criticism. For example, the theory has proved difficult to test under experimental conditions. Indeed, Freud’s own writings offer little in the way of “hard data” that can be subjected to rigorous statistical analysis. There is little doubt that, in a time when discussion about sexuality was regarded as something of a taboo, Freud was unreserved in his explorations of the subject. Since Freud expounded his theory, many “post-Freudians” have written about the development of human personality, building on Freud’s ideas and developing theories of their own. These include Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, and Karen Horney, to name but a few (see Fransella, 1981; Mischel et al., 2008). In addition, a whole branch of psychoanalytic treatment has sprung up as a direct result of Freud’s work. Freudian theory has also had an influence on the contemporary psychotherapies presently used in the clinical field (Kring, Johnson, Davison, & Neale, 2013).

The biological perspective

Charles Darwin’s The Origin of Species (1859) has been heralded as one of the most significant influences on the way in which we view human nature. Prior to Darwin, thought was guided by the principle that human beings were unique in the sense that they were the only species that possessed a “soul”. Therefore, humans were seen as being fundamentally different from other species. Darwin was a biologist who spent many years making comparisons between different species of animals (including humans). He suggested that humans had evolved out of other species, and should therefore be seen as part of the wider animal kingdom.

Darwin’s work had a number of implications for the development of a biological perspective in psychology. Each of these implications is briefly indicated here, along with an example of a current research focus that has directly influenced contemporary theory, research, and application.

1. The notion that we should look at the interface between biological factors and psychological factors. An example of wh...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Half Title Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Table of Contents
• Preface
• Acknowledgements
• Preface to the fourth edition
• 1 Introduction to psychology
• 2 A study guide to lectures, seminars, and tutorials
• 3 A guide to essay writing and referencing
• 4 A guide to research methods
• 5 Ethics in research
• 6 Empirical research report writing
• 7 A guide to preparing for examinations
• 8 After the degree: opportunities for a psychology graduate
• References
• Author index
• Subject index